30 INSTITUTE OF SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY—PUBLICATION NO. 5 
located on the main street but, because of the 
proximity of Ayacucho, these are poorly stocked. 
According to the 1940 Peruvian census, the 
population of the District of Carmen Alto is 756 
(Extracto Estadistico del Pert, 1940, p. 37). The 
sole white resident is the friar, a Spaniard of the 
Carmelite order. It is difficult to decide, merely 
on the basis of observable criteria, whether the 
bulk of the inhabitants of the village should be 
classed as Indians or as Mestizos.” For although 
the houses in which they live, as well as, perhaps, 
the arriero tradition of trading ventures, which 
forms the principal means of livelihood of the 
village, are of Spanish origin, one gets the impres- 
sion that the way of life in Carmen Alto contains 
much of Indian tradition. Dress styles are so 
variable that it is literally impossible to describe 
“the typical costume” of Carmen Alto. Women 
dress indiscriminately in native-woven or manu- 
factured materials, wear shoes, slipper-sandals, 
or go barefoot, and employ a variety of headgear 
and carrying cloths. The men dress in Western 
European type clothing of homespun or machine- 
made cloth and, in addition, often wear striped 
woolen ponchos woven in natural colcrs and either 
shoes or slipper-sandals. Weaving is done on 
both Spanish and aboriginal-type looms, and 
both sexes spin, a trait which, in southern Peru, 
is taken to be an insignia of the Indian class. 
That the food habits of Carmen Alto are Indian 
rather than Spanish is suggested by the meal which 
was offered to us by the gobernador, a leading 
citizen. Served to all in a single dish, the meal 
consisted of dry charqui, toasted maize, and chop- 
ped hot pepper, accompanied by maize beer 
(chicha). 
In addition to the above-mentioned cultural 
criteria, it may be stated that the language of 
Carmen Alto is Quechua rather than Spanish, 
although it is estimated that some 50 percent 
of the men and considerably fewer women also 
speak the latter language. Yet the inhabitants of 
the village consider themselves to be Mestizos; 
the gobernador stated, “There are no Indians in 
Carmen Alto; they only live way back in the hills.” 
In view of the above observations, then, it appears 
likely that class is of less importance in Carmen 
Alto than in Quinoa, and that such distinctions 
57 The census breaks down the population of the village into 66 individuals 
classed as Whites or Mestizos and 690 Indians (Extracto Estadistico del 
Perdi, 1540, p. 36). This is an excellent example of the pitfalls of arbitrary 
“typing" where cultural criteria have not been taken into account in any 
systematic way. 
as exist are based upon wealth and sophistication 
rather than upon major cultural differences be- 
tween classes. 
Carmen Alto has the political organization ap- 
propriate to a District of the Republic (see Sicaya, 
pp. 43-44) ; in addition, the village is divided at the 
church into moieties which today are called the 
“upper barrio” and “lower barrio.’ Public offices 
are held by the wealthier citizens, or notables, of 
the village, while the two school teachers are 
Mestizos from Ayacucho. The ancient offices of 
varayoc have disappeared in the immediate vicinity 
of Ayacucho. 
Since Carmen Alto possesses little land of its 
own and since it is surrounded by haciendas, fincas, 
and by lands of the Church, farming is not of 
primary importance in the economy, and such 
crops as are grown are for consumption in the 
village or are sold in the small local market which 
is held in the plaza on Sundays. Most land is 
sown with barley to serve as fodder for the many 
horses, mules, and burros which are kept for pack 
animals. The cultivated fields in the vicinity of 
the village are small plots, surrounded by hedges 
of prickly pear cacti, and planted with maize, 
wheat, potatoes, and occasional vineyards. The 
patios of most houses contain a small number of 
fig trees. In addition to the pack animals, which 
are kept in considerable numbers, the livestock of 
Carmen Alto consists of guinea pigs, a few 
chickens, and numerous dogs; scrawny pigs wallow 
and root in the patios and side streets. 
Although roads and improved means of trans- 
portation are beginning to offer substantial com- 
petition, many inhabitants of the village continue 
to earn their livelihood as arrieros, or professional 
muleteers and traders (pl. 8, c). Informants 
estimate that at least half the male population of 
the community is regularly engaged in making 
long trips to the punas and pampas of Ayacucho 
and Huancavelica Departments to purchase and 
trade for livestock and Highland products. The 
women of Carmen Alto, also active in commerce, 
are the butchers and meat dealers of Ayacucho. 
During the year a typical arriero makes two or 
three trips, each of which requires from 2 to 3 
months, for the purpose of buying and trading. 
The average mule train is composed of about a 
dozen animals which are adorned for the journey 
with elaborate woven trappings of red and white 
woolen materials (pl. 8, d). At times the arrieros 
travel in large groups, occasionally accompanied by 
