POWELL. } ARTICLE PRONOUNS—GENDERS. 9 
the body of the person to whom he is speaking, he says your, &c. If 
an Indian should find a detached foot thrown from the amputating-table 
of an army field hospital, he would say something like this: I have 
found somebody his foot. The linguistic characteristic is widely spread, 
though not universal. 
Thus the Indian has no command of a fully differentiated noun ex- 
pressive of eye, hand, arm, or other parts and organs of the body. 
In the pronouns we often have the most difficult part of an Indian 
language. Pronouns are only to a limited extent independent words. 
Among the free pronouns the student must early learn to distinguish be- 
tween the personal and the demonstrative. The demonstrative pronouns 
are more commonly used. The Indian is more accustomed to say this 
person or thing, that person or thing, than he, she, or it. Among the 
free personal pronouns the student may find an equivalent of the pro- 
noun J, another signifying I and you; perhaps another signifying I and 
he, and one signifying we, more than two, including the speaker and 
those present; and another including the speaker and persons absent. 
He will also find personal pronouns in the second and third person, per- 
haps with singular, dual, and plural forms. 
To a large extent the pronouns are incorporated in the verbs as pre- 
fixes, infixes, or suffixes. In such cases we will call them article pro- 
nouns. These article pronouns point out with great particularity the 
person, number, and gender, both of subject and object, and sometimes 
of the indirect object. When the article pronouns are used the personal 
pronouns may or may not be used; but it is believed that the personal 
pronouns will always be found. Article pronouns may not always be 
found. In those languages which are characterized by them they are 
used alike when the subject and object nouns are expressed and when 
they are not. The student may at first find some difficulty with these 
article pronouns. Singular, dual, and plural forms will be found. Some- 
times distinct incorporated particles will be used for subject and object, 
but often this will not be the case. If the subject only is expressed, 
one particle may be used; if the object only is expressed, another 
particle; but if subject and object are expressed an entirely different 
particle may stand for both. 
But itis in the genders of these article pronouns that the greatest 
difficulty may be found. The student must entirely free his mind of 
the idea that gender is simply a distinction of sex. In Indian tongues, 
genders are usually methods of classification primarily into animate and 
inanimate. The animate may be again divided into male and female, 
but this is rarely the case. Often by these genders all objects are classi- 
fied by characteristics found in their attitudes or supposed constitution. 
Thus we may have the animate and inanimate, one or both, divided into 
the standing, the sitting, and the lying ; or they may be divided into the 
watery, the mushy, the earthy, the stony, the woody, and the fleshy. The 
gender of these article pronouns has rarely been worked: out in any 
