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POWELL | SOCIOLOGY—PSYCHOLOGY. 83 
SOCIOLOGY. 
Here again North America presents a wide and interesting field to 
the investigator, for it has within its extent many distinct governments, 
and these governments, so far as investigations have been carried, are 
found to belong to a type more primitive than any of the feudalities 
from which the civilized nations of the earth sprang, as shown by con- 
currently recorded history. 
Yet in this history many facts have been discovered suggesting that 
feudalities themselves had an origin in something more primitive. In 
the study of the tribes of the world a multitude of sociologic institutions 
and customs have been discovered, and in reviewing the history of feu- 
dalities it is seen that many of their important elements are survivals 
from tribal society. 
So important are these discoveries that all human history has to be 
rewritten, the whole philosophy of history reconstructed. Government 
does not begin in the ascendency of chieftains through prowess in war, 
but in the slow specialization of executive functions from communal 
associations based on kinship. Deliberative assemblies do not start in 
councils gathered by chieftains, but councils precede chieftaincies. Law 
does not begin in contract, but is the development of custom. Land 
tenure does not begin in grants from the monarch or the feudal lord, 
but a system of tenure in common by gentes or tribes is developed into 
a system of tenure in severalty. Evolution in society has not been from 
militancy to industrialism, but from organization based on kinship to 
organization based on property, and alongside of the specializations of 
the industries of peace the arts of war have been specialized. 
So, one by one, the theories of metaphysical writers on sociology are 
overthrown, and the facts of history are taking their place, and the 
philosophy of history is being erected out of materials accumulating by 
objective studies of mankind 
PSYCHOLOGY. 
Psychology has hitherto been chietly in the hands of subjective phi- 
losophers and is the last branch of anthropology to be treated by scien- 
tific methods. But of late years sundry important labors have been 
performed with the end in view to give this department of philosophy a 
basis of objective facts; especially the organ of the mind has been 
studied and the mental operations of animals have been compared with 
