Energy Development 
Energy development has begun to impinge more widely on the 
marine environment. Offshore exploration, development, and produc- 
tion of oil and gas is continuing to increase rapidly. Both normal 
operations and accidental mishaps such as blowouts can create signifi- 
cant marine pollution. In addition, plans are being discussed for con- 
struction of deep water superports and offshore oil terminals. Floating 
offshore power plants may also begin to affect marine ecosystems. 
Nuclear energy development including atmospheric testing and re- 
processing of nuclear fuels have contributed radioactive pollutants to 
the oceans. While atmospheric testing has decreased,.the use of 
nuclear fuels is increasing rapidly. Radioactive materials enter the 
ocean through the atmosphere-ocean interchange and by discharge 
into rivers or into the ocean directly. 
Combustion and Processing 
Another source of marine pollution entering through the atmosphere- 
ocean interface is derived from the combustion of fossil fuels. Carbon 
dioxide plus the products from incomplete combustion and the oxida- 
tion or vaporization of contaminants in the fuels pollute the atmosphere 
and eventually pollute the oceans. Evaporation of volatile substances 
such as chlorinated hydrocarbons and petroleum products and vapors 
from industrial processing also contribute to ocean pollution via the 
atmosphere. 
Military Activities 
Military use of the oceans for target and bombing practice has 
contributed some measure of pollution. Wartime activities involving 
the sinking of tremendous tonnages of shipping must also be con- 
sidered. Seepage of oil and munitions or other materials from destroyed 
ships may locally affect the marine environment. Testing of nuclear 
weapons has also contributed to ocean pollution both via the atmos- 
phere and directly from oceanic test sites. 
Dredging 
Dredging is primarily a near-shore problem with the exception of 
deep sea mining which will be considered separately. Present dredging 
activities are concerned primarily with port and channel development 
and recovery of commercial minerals such as sand, gravel, shells, 
barite, cassiterite, ilemenite, zircons, gold, and diamonds from estu- 
aries and offshore locations. Future dredging activities may include 
deep-water port construction and the related development of offshore 
oil terminals. 
Deep Seabed Mining 
The recovery of ferromanganese nodules from the ocean floor is 
likely to have an impact on the marine environment. At present, lack 
of international agreements regulating deep seabed mining, concern 
for the security of the investment, and uncertainty regarding the 
environmental impact of the activity is hindering commercial develop- 
ment. Preliminary studies indicate that the environmental disruption 
from the physical aspects of deep seabed mining may be minimal. 
