89 



breaker in the open sea and its drift before the wind often limits 

 sampling operations to a maximum wind velocity of 20 to 35 knots. 



(d) A submarine can be designed to permit extensive observations while 

 submerged. 



(e) Much equipment can be hull mounted permitting measurements under- 

 way and at changing depth. Long electrical leads or sampling lines, 

 and streaming gear can be kept to a minimum. 



A big disadvantage of the submarine is its limited space for personnel 

 and equipment. Instrumentation will need be pointed towards compact automatic 

 or semi-automatic gear, requiring a minimum of space and operating personnel. 

 Full advantage should be taken of direct recording, hull mounted instruments. 

 Sampling methods may need to be extended to permit investigating the water 

 above the submarine to the ice or surface by using floats. Ample precedent in 

 the atmosphere has been set by the meteorologist. Conventional gear that is to 

 be lowered on hydrographic lines should be as small as practicable. Chances 

 of contamination within a pressure chamber should be less than on an exposed 

 weather deck, thus favoring the use of micro-techniques. Microanalytical 

 methods should be used for chemical determinations wherever possible. Pres- 

 ent day trends in oceanographic instrumentation are towards micro and automac- 

 tic methods and the environment of the submarine should be especially favorable 

 to their development. 



From an operational standpoint the submarine would presumably need 

 detecting devices to locate targets on all bearings and vertical angles. These 

 could be used to survey the lower surface of the ice as well as the bottom. 

 Means of fixing position under water will be necessary, the degree of accuracy 

 attainable limiting the oceanographic problems to be investigated. The micro- 

 structure of the submerged ice surface and sublying water can be determined 

 almost irrespective of position in the ice area. Positions obtained by occasion- 

 al contact with the surface, combined with DR when submerged, or from bottom 

 topography, are accurate enough to give the "climatic" picture. Good fixes 

 would be required for accurately charting the sea floor under the ice. Although 

 a simple device capable of precisely fixing positions while submerged would 

 greatly increase the scope of oceanographic work that could be performed, much 

 useful work can be done by conventional methods and using available equipment. 



Aircraft - Andree of Sweden was making preparations to reach the north pole 

 by balloon in 1896 while Nansen and Sverdrup were still unreported from the 

 FRAM expedition. With two companions he survived the crash of the balloon on 

 the pack ice in 1897 but perished in camp after reaching land. Subsequent at- 

 tempts made to reach the pole by both lighter-than-air and heavier-than-air air- 

 craft first succeeded in 1926. More recently over-the-pole flights and ice land- 

 ings have become commonplace. The use of aircraft has added greatly to the 

 knowledge of the character and extent of the Arctic and Antarctic packs, and the 

 water mass and depths of the Arctic Basin. Aerial scouting of polar and of 

 fringe areas critical for commercial shipping is now a routine operation. To- 

 day planes supplement Coast Guard ships on the International Ice Patrol operat- 

 ing in the Grand Banks area. 



Landings on pack ice have been nnade using both light and medium weight 

 planes and various types of landing gear. The two-motor DC-3 (C-47 or R4D), 

 grossing approximately 15 tons, appears quite satisfactory. Heavier planes 

 would have a smaller choice of landing places. Lighter planes are deficient 

 in range and load capacity. Wheels and skis both are used for snow landings. 

 Small planes with floats can use ice puddles in summer. Recently frozen leads 

 or leads of the winter that have not been broken and rafted since the original 

 freezing make suitable landing strips. These can be found over most of the 



