BOOK XI. 511 



in the latter, and in the front of the furnace, three feet above the floor of 

 the building, is the mouth out of which the re-melted copper flows into a 

 forehearth and a dipping-pot. On the left side of the mouth is an aperture, 

 through which beech-wood may be put into the furnace to feed the fire. If 

 in a centum pondiuni of copper there were a sixth of a libra and a semi-uncia of 

 silver, or a cjuarter of a libra, or a quarter of a libra and a semi-uncia — there is 

 re-melted at the same time thirty-eight cenlumpondia of it in this furnace, until 

 there remain in each centumpondium of the copper " bottoms " a third of a 

 libra and a semi-uncia of silver. For example, if in each centumpondium of 

 copper not yet re-melted, there is a quarter of a libra and a semi-uncia of silver, 

 then the thirty-eight cenlumpondia that are smelted together must contain a 

 total of eleven librae and an uncia of silver. Since from fifteen cenlumpondia 

 of re-melted copper there was a total of four and a third librae and a semi-uncia 

 of silver, there remain only two and a third librae. Thus there is left in the 

 " bottoms," weighing twenty-three cenlumpondia, a total of eight and three- 

 quarter librae of silver. Therefore, each centumpondium of this contains a 

 third of a Uora and a semi-uncia, a drachma, and the twenty-third part of a 

 drachma of silver ; from such copper it is profitable to separate the silver. 

 In order that the master may be more certain of the number of cenlumpondia 

 of copper in the " bottoms," he weighs the " tops " that have been drawn 

 off from it ; the " tops " were first drawn off into the dipping-pot, and cakes 

 were made from them. Fourteen hours are expended on the work of thus 

 dividing the copper. The " bottoms," when a certain weight of lead has 

 been added to them, of which alloy I shall soon speak, are melted in 

 the blast furnace ; liquation cakes are then made, and the silver is afterward 

 separated from the copper. The " tops " are subsequently melted 

 in the blast furnace, and re-melted in the refining furnace, in order that 

 red copper shall be made^^ ; and the " tops " from this are again smelted in 

 the blast furnace, and then again in the refining furnace, that therefrom 



^^The latter part of this paragraph presents great difficulties. The term " refining 

 furnace " is given in the Latin as the " second furnace," an expression usually applied to the 

 cupellation furnace. The whole question of refining is exhaustively discussed on pages 

 530 to 539. Exactly what material is meant by the term red (rubrum), yellow (fulvum) 

 and caldarium copper is somewhat uncertain. They are given in the German text simply as 

 rot, geel, and lebeter kupfer, and apparently all were " coarse " copper of different characters 

 destined for the refinery. The author states in De Natura Fossilium (p. 334) : " Copper has a 

 " red colour peculiar to itself ; this colour in smelted copper is considered the most excellent. 



" It, however, varies. In some it is red, as in the copper smelted at Neusohl 



" Other copper is prepared in the smelters where silver is separated from copper, which is 

 " called yellow copper (luteum), and is regulare. In the same place a dark yellow copper is 

 " made which is called caldarium, taking its name among the Germans from a caldron. 

 " .... Regulare differs from caldarium in that the former is not only fusible, but 

 " also malleable ; while the latter is, indeed, fusible, but is not ductile, for it breaks when 

 " struck with the hammer." Later on in De Re Meiallica (p. 542) he describes yellow 

 copper as made from " baser " liquation thorns and from exhausted liquation cakes made 

 from thorns. These products were necessarily impure, as they contained, among other 

 things, the concentrates from furnace accretions. Therefore, there was ample source for 

 zinc, arsenic or other metallics which would lighten the colour. Caldarium copper is described 

 by Pliny (see note, p. 404), and was, no doubt, " coarse " copper, and apparently Agricola 

 adopted this term from that source, as we have found it used nowhere else. On page 542 the 

 author describes making caldarium copper from a mixture of yellow copper and a peculiar 

 cadmia, which he describes as the " slags " from refining copper. These " slags," which are 

 the result of oxidation and poling, would contain almost any of the metallic impurities of 

 the original ore, antimony, lead, arsenic, zinc, cobalt, etc. Coming from these two sources 

 the caldarium must have been, indeed, impure. 



