ARCTIC SEA ICE 1 01 



crease of salinity is produced by the melting of snow and by the 

 discharge of rivers from the land, also partly by the melting of old 

 floating ice. The hindrances to wave motion are well-protected bays 

 and fiords, the presence of floating and grounded old ice and islands, 

 and calm weather. 



Therefore, the presence of old floating ice masses plays an im- 

 portant role in the process of formation of new ice. With the begin- 

 ning of frosts the new ice first forms along the shores and among the 

 floating masses of old ice and later in open places of the sea. 



Newly formed ice, until the time it reaches a solidity sufficient 

 to resist wave motion and breaking up, is subjected to repeated 

 breaking up and extinction, while with calm weather and a cessation 

 of disturbing reasons "these repeated processes of freezing gain the 

 upper hand, producing the impression of an almost instantaneous 

 phenomenon" (Kolchak). Yet, a quick fall of the air temperature 

 in autumn overcomes all these water-disturbing factors, and under 

 the influence of this energetic process the freezing ice takes on a 

 form which remains stable during the whole period of the Arctic 

 winter. 



Except for the places protected from wave motion and currents, 

 the surface of new ice 3 to 4 centimeters in thickness is, in general, 

 uneven, owing to the repeated breaking up that results from the 

 motion of its separate parts. 



Having in mind these particulars with regard to the freezing of 

 sea water and disregarding the question of the properties of sea ice 

 itself, we may now describe the formation of fast-ice, its growth, and 

 disappearance. 



First of all, fast-ice forms in sheltered bays, gulfs, and fiords, 

 as well as among floating parts of old ice. Developing along the 

 shore and spreading into the sea, it meets with the new ice simulta- 

 neously formed and gone forth from islands, grounded hummocks 

 (Russian, stamukhi), and floating masses of old ice, and connects 

 with them. Then it is subjected to repeated fracturing, but, with the 

 fall in the temperature of the air, it spreads more and more energeti- 

 cally into the sea, increasing at the same time in thickness, offering 

 more and more resistance to breaking up, and, finally, in December it 

 reaches the maximum of its offshore extension, beyond which limits 

 the region of the pack ice is to be found. 



The development of the width of the fast-ice belt depends upon: 

 (i) the configuration of the shore — the more articulated the coast 

 line and the greater the number of islands in its vicinity, the greater 

 is the width of the fast-ice; (2) the relief of the bottom — the more 

 shallow the sea, the less are the possibilities of the existence of strong 

 currents and wave motion; (3) the presence of stamukhi, which 

 owe their formation chiefly to the shallowness — they play a very 



