339 



viewed as either strategic or tactical depending on how they are deployed and 

 used. They must be accompanied by forces intended for their protection and 

 logistic replenishment. 



The United States has developed and practiced amphibious warfare a great 

 deal. This form of warfare has been required by conflicts on foreign shores 

 particularly those involving allies. This projection of force sometimes, however, 

 can have the concomitant advantages ito the, United States of keeping conflicts 

 remote from our national boundaries. This, too, is a use of the oceans as a base 

 for the projection of infantry and armored power ashore. These forces too 

 mu?t be protected, and generally require air cover. 



Where the military presence of these forces have been invited no legal 

 problems are raised by their deployment. But if the territorial seas of neighbor- 

 ing neutrals or potential hostile powers were to be unilaterally extended so that 

 ambiguity existed or serious deployment interference resulted then political 

 factors would have an impact on the conduct of the military campaign. For 

 this reason extension of sovereignty to the extent that it denies freedom of 

 military forces is inimical to the continuation of past tactical doctrines. 



Mine Warfare is another area of concern. The moored mine, though designed 

 to be fixed in a specific location, becomes highly hazardous when set adrift by 

 the sea, or as a result of minesweeping or minelaying attempts. This problem 

 has already resulted in legal restrictions covering the use of moored mines, the 

 sanitation thereof, and the prohibition of free drifting mines. Bottom mines may 

 be actuated by magnetic, acoustic, pressure influence, or commtmication from 

 shore. The United States military position regarding the legal status of mines 

 on such areas as the continental shelf beyond the territorial sea has been that 

 they are property belonging to the owner. 



The further extension of military capability to the seabed is a clear pos- 

 sibility. Saturation or extended diving operations, together with vehicles, sen- 

 sors, and tools, will permit broader utilization of the sea floor and may provide 

 many military advantages. The right to deploy units on the sea floor in inter- 

 national waters for the purpose of inspecting for mines or other impediments to 

 the legitimate exercise of the free seas in particular seems useful. Extension 

 of territorial limits and/or establishment of seabed sovereignty would threaten 

 or limit this possibility. 



One other military possibility to be noted speciflcally is protection of those en- 

 gaged in exploration of the sea. United States capital is unlikely to be risked 

 unless it is United States policy to protect the investments against foreign 

 or piratical invasions. This will be a Navy and/or Coast Guard mission. 



In order to understand the military use of the oceans we must continually 

 observe, measure and attempt to understand them. 



Some Technological and Scientific BacTi(jround, to Military Use of the Sea 



A knowledge of the various oceanographic conditions for the particular area 

 involved is important if naval operations are to be successful. Forecasting 

 techniques, developed during World War II and refined in the years since, have 

 proven to be highly successful. In the planning stages of an amphibious landing 

 for example, forecasts of tides, tidal currents, and surf conditions must be made. 

 Since these conditions are affected by weather, meterologists in conjunction with 

 oceanographers are employed. 



If wind velocities and directions can be accurately forecast, these can be 

 translated into wave heights and ultimately into heights of surf. Wave and 

 surf forecasting can be made if measurements have been made over a wide 

 area days and weeks in advance and in remote locations. This combined with 

 a careful study of the hydrography of the area will enable the forecaster to 

 predict whether the landing craft will be hampered by the presence of rip cur- 

 rents and inshore currents. Finally a reconnaissance of the area by frogmen 

 will aid in establishing the presence or absence of underwater obstacles, mines, 

 .sensors, pinnacles, rocks, shoals or coral heads. 



Developments in oceanography and ocean engineering are important to the 

 overall objective in mine warfare. Since the influence which sets off the mine 

 and the destructive force of the mine explosion are transmitted through the 

 water, a knowledge of various water properties in necessary for intelligent 

 employment of both mines and mine countermeasures. Until recently only areas 

 with water depths shallower than 100 fathoms were considered to he mineable. 

 Looking to the future the ability to work on the bottom raises the possibility 

 that mines may be found in deeper water. 



