NATIONAL OCEANOGRAPHIC PROGRAM—1965 75 
on a global scale must be measured on a global scale. Also, since these changes 
are of a secular or long period nature, a long-time series of observations, often 
in remote areas, is required. Again, these observations would tax the resources 
of any single country and could be carried out more easily through international 
cooperation. Studies of a biological nature are also amenable for international 
cooperation. The determination of the kinds and amount of fish contained in 
the ocean, aS well as how rapidly these are consumed and reproduced, is one 
of prodigious effort requiring a considerable period of time. This will be so even 
with international cooperation and painstakingly so if it were to be undertaken 
by individual countries. Another area in which many countries have individual 
efforts and in which these efforts could be made much more efficient is the map- 
ping of the topography of the ocean floor. Cooperative programs in this in- 
stance would prevent duplication of efforts and would also provide an interchange 
of techniques and interpretation. 
Still another area in which international cooperation has been useful is 
that of data exchange. This was particularly demonstrated during the period 
of the International Geophysical Year in which world data centers were estab- 
lished. These data centers allowed for the free exchange of information between 
all countries. 
In addition to data exchange, cooperative programs in oceanography have also 
provided a mechanism for the exchange of scientists and ideas. This has proved 
to be particularly useful between countries such as the United States and the 
Soviet Union, where normally there is a minimum of such exchange. Further, 
along these iines, there results from these exchanges an increased wnderstand- 
ing among oceanographers. if this understanding is pursued on a broad enough 
basis, it could conceivably produce a marked effect on international relations. 
Similarly, oceanegraphie research ships, as they visit various countries, in a 
way act as ambassadors of good will and understanding, particularly since their 
mission is one that is devoted to increasing the welfare of mankind. 
Although cooperative programs in oceanography have been carried out to one 
extent or another for many decades, the most significant effort of this kind 
was undertaken during the International Geophysical Year in 1957-58. This 
was organized by the special committee for the IGY under the auspices of the 
International Council of Scientific Unions with most of the large maritime coun- 
tries participating in the program. Upon the completion of this international 
endeayor, SCOR, a special committee of ICSU, examined possible areas of re- 
search in which this cooperative spirit could be continued. The result was the 
initiation of the international Indian Ocean expedition. Although this program 
was conceived in 1958, ship operations did not commence until 1961, and they 
will extend through the end of 1965. In 1961 the newly formed Intergovernmental 
Oceanographic Commission of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and 
Cultural Organization (UNESCO) assumed responsibility for the coordination 
of the International Indian Ocean Expedition (IIOE). The IIOE represents 
the first formal international program of several to be sponsored by the iOC. 
This program was drawn up to provide for a concerted study of one of the least 
known oceanic areas in the world—the Indian Ocean. Underlying theme of the 
program was to determine the effect the changing monsoon winds had upon the 
ocean circulation and, in turn, what effect this had on the biological productivity. 
The scientific program was broken into four broad areas of interest. The first 
concerned itself with the problem of the ocean basin. For example, how does 
the bottom of the Indian Ocean compare with bottom features of other oceans 
and what were the geological forces that shaped the basin? The second broad 
area of interest covered the chemical and physical description of the waters and 
the dynamics of their motion. The third major field of interest concerned the 
living populations in the Indian Ocean, both plant and animal. In particular, 
there has been much effort to determine the productivity of this area. The last 
broad area of research involved the interaction between the ocean and atmos- 
phere, especially the difference of conditions between the two monsoon seasons. 
This effort included not only studies from surface ships but also involved the 
use of fixed ocean buoys and meteorological aircraft. In this connecticn an 
International Meteorological Center was established in Bombay which w’ll be 
continued at the end of the expedition. 
By the end of 1965 over 40 ships from about 12 countries will have participated. 
In addition, eight other countries will have provided scientifie assistance. The 
U.S. effort in this program amounts to approximately one-third the total and 
