474 
her growing interest in deep sea oceanography, 
is shown by the assignment of five out of her 
approximately 24 survey and fisheries research 
vessels to the International Indian Ocean Expedi- 
tion. This fleet is comparatively new, three- 
quarters of it being less than 12 years old. It is 
also very capable, with six of the ships exceeding 
1000 tons and only two under 200 tons in size. 
The Oceanographic Society of Japan includes 
more than 500 members, and the work force is 
estimated at 200 - 225 professionals with about 
600 technicians. Some 30 - 35 students graduate 
with bachelor’s degrees in oceanography each 
year but only four or five doctorates are conferred. 
The annual oceanographic budget is estimated at 
about $10 - $12 million. 
C. United Kingdom 
It was the British “Challenger” Expedition in 
1873-1876 which first opened the oceans of the 
world to modern science, and the British have 
maintained a leading place in world oceanography 
ever since. 
British oceanography centers in the work of the 
National Institute of Oceanography, generally 
considered one of the outstanding oceanographic 
Institutions in the world. It was founded in 1949, 
in Surrey, to centralize the work of three older 
establishments—the Discovery Committee, the 
Oceanographic Branch of the Admiralty, and the 
Underwater Sound Establishment at Teddington. 
The work at NIO emphasizes physical oceanog- 
raphy, including wave studies and current meas- 
urements, but its program also includes some 
marine chemistry, sea-floor geology, geophysics, 
and marine biology. Its staff is led by some 20 
senior scientists, and its major oceanographic 
vessel is the new DISCOVERY. Its operating 
budget has risen from about $3/4 million in the 
middle of the last decade to about $1.8 million 
today. 
The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries con- 
ducts a program of applied oceanography at its 
laboratory in Lowestoft, operating the research 
vessel ERNEST HOLT. The Fisheries Biology for 
Scotland has a laboratory in Aberdeen, and the 
Marine Biological Association has a laboratory in 
Plymouth. 
Education and research in physical oceanog- 
raphy is conducted at the Department of Ocea- 
nography at Liverpool where the University also 
41 
NATIONAL OCEANOGRAPHIC PROGRAM—1965 
Maintains the famous Tidal Observatory. The 
Department of Geodesy and Geophysics at Cam- 
bridge conducts ocean-floor studies, and some 
eight additional universities have recently initiated 
programs also in marine geology. The British 
Museum and the British Petroleum Company also 
have programs in_ geological oceanography. 
Large-scale hydrographic survey work is con- 
ducted on a world-wide basis by the Admiralty 
with a survey fleet of about ten. 
There are about 300 professional oceanogra- 
phers in the United Kingdom supported by about 
900 technicians. Some 40 - 45 bachelor’s degrees 
in oceanography are granted each year, but only 
5 - 6 doctorates. The ocean-going research fleet 
includes about 16 vessels and the annual budget 
is estimated at about $8 - $10 million. 
D. Canada 
Canada conducts a large, well-rounded program 
in all phases of oceanography but with special 
application to the Arctic and sub-Arctic. A cen- 
tral Canadian Committee on Oceanography, 
representing both universities and government 
agencies, establishes basic policy and coordinates 
the research program through four working 
groups, each concerned with a different geograph- 
ical area. 
There are approximately 170 professional 
oceanographers and 500 technicians working in 
a total of about 14 laboratories. The Canadian 
research fleet consists of 17 vessels including 
several refitted icebreakers, and ships normally 
operated for the Fisheries Research Board. The 
annual budget is estimated at about $58 million. 
E. Summary 
The international apparatus for cooperative 
oceanographic enterprises is large, active, and 
highly effective. The member nations with the 
greatest capabilities are the United States, the 
USSR, Japan, the United Kingdom, and Canada, 
but there are 39 others represented as well. It is 
estimated that more than 250 oceanographic re- 
search ships exist capable of open ocean opera- 
tions and that there are numerous smaller enter- 
prises as well as the Ocean-Wide Survey Plan that 
can best be executed through international 
cooperation. 
