212 
In viewing the Soviet policymaking process, it should be kept in 
mind that the behavior of the top Soviet echelons has changed over 
time. Stalin made decisions personally on both major and minor issues. 
Khrushchev’s power to take independent initiatives varied during his 
tenure. Under Brezhnev, the entire Politburo membership has become 
more involved in decisionmaking. At the same time, decisionmaking 
authority is being increasingly dispersed to technical experts outside 
the central party structure. 
INTRODUCTION 
Soviet ocean uses have increased significantly in the postwar period. 
Ocean uses and maritime interests have been an important considera- 
tion in Soviet domestic economic development. Large resource invest- 
ment has taken place, resulting in improved technical capabilities and 
expanded areas of operations. The Soviet Union is now the second 
world naval power, second in world fishing catch, sixth in shipping 
tonnage, and conducts extensive oceanographic research. The Soviets 
have shown interest in developing the potentially large offshore oil 
and gas deposits, and have studied manganese nodule placements and 
mining techniques. In addition, they exhibit environmental interests 
and have taken water pollution control measures. 
Soviet ocean policy is the result of these various maritime interests, 
as well as the larger domestic and foreign policy concerns.? Soviet 
ocean policy is formed on the basis of: 
(1) individual ocean user preferences and goals; 
(2) overall domestic priorities, goals, and economic resources; 
(3) foreign policy goals and strategies; and 
(4) international law of the sea issues. 
Soviet ocean policy formulation involves multiple considerations of 
strategic, political, and economic requirements. All military planning, 
for example, takes place within a budgetary context. Decisions taken 
on naval expansion and forward deployment of the fleet may be 
motivated by political and strategic conceptions, but are also evaluated 
in economic terms. Policy and economic considerations are also mixed 
in the case of Soviet maritime fleet development. The extensive growth 
of the maritime fleet was probably generated both by the desire to 
build up political and strategic power and to maintain flexibility; but 
also by the objective of conserving foreign exchange in the face of 
growing foreign trade and increased chartering of foreign ships. The 
large Soviet investment in an extensive distant water fishing fleet 
involved economic considerations, but resulted in clashes with ex- 
panded coastal state jurisdiction and foreign policy considerations. 
Soviet ocean policy formulation inextricably joins domestic and 
foreign concerns. The management of ocean uses is a complex 
domestic economic and political problem and could be analyzed as 
a case of postwar Soviet development in terms of economic manage- 
ment and resource allocation. Investment priorities and performance 
are basic ocean management issues. The numerous Soviet ocean activi- 
ties also have to be planned and coordinated with respect to other 
national programs; and domestic politics and the interaction of politi- 
2See William E. Butler, “‘The Soviet Union and the Law of the Sea” (Baltimore: The Johns Hop- 
kins Press, 1971). Terese Sulikowski, ‘“‘Soviet Ocean Policy,’ Ocean Development and International 
Law Journal, 3 (1, 1975): 69-73. 
