608 
insure that military cargoes could be readily handled has been sug- 
gested. Preconstruction design features (for example, special power 
outlets, strong points, or space for additional wartime communications 
equipment) would be of insignificant cost and would allow for very 
rapid utilization for military sealift during periods of crisis or war. 
Such modifications would involve little cost if done at the time of 
construction. 
Defense needs are also taken into consideration by MARAD in 
the so-called National Defense Features (NDF) program, by adding 
certain additional defense design standards (for example, hull compart- 
mentation to minimize the effects of torpedo hits, improved shock 
resistance, additional electrical power and evaporating capacity, and 
increased speed).!37 Admiral Zumwalt wanted to go considerably 
beyond the current NDF program. He had merchant ships successfully 
tested for refueling at sea and examined the feasibility of using com- 
mercial container ships for replenishment of ammunition and other 
logistics in conjunction with a heavy lift helicopter. When Zumwalt 
was Chief of Naval Operations, the Navy also examined the feasibility 
of giving supertankers the capability to handle V/STOL aircraft and 
antisubmarine helicopters during wartime, together with the necessary 
shipboard equipment, so that they could provide their own fighter, 
antimissile, and antisubmarine capability.%% Although each one of 
those programs would have initially been costly to implement, they 
might have proved cost-effective in the end. Admiral Zumwalt main- 
tains that each one of these plans was technically feasible, but that 
it was politically impossible to resolve jurisdictional disputes between 
the DOD and MARAD."*9 
The feasibility of some of those Zumwalt proposals were confirmed 
in a recent study by the Transportation Institute. The study suggested 
several potential self-defense modifications to merchant ships to 
facilitate their use in military sealift. Installation of passive (electronic 
(decoy) jammer) and active (gun/missile) defense, plus the ability 
to provide helicopter facilities, were listed for consideration.’ If 
planned prior to construction, such defense features can generally 
be added at relatively low cost. Since it provides for incorporation 
during normal construction scheduling, it would significantly reduce 
the shipyard workload during critical periods such as the beginning 
of hostilities or during an emergency.!*! There are a number of other 
specific recommendations in the study, suggesting modification of 
roll-on/roll-off, container, Lash, and Seabee ships to make them 
adaptable to various forms of amphibious assault ships, helicopter 
V/STOL carriers, maintenance and communications ships, et cetera.'” 
But, since the 1947 defense reorganization, there has been no senior 
individual in the executive branch to insure the coordination of the 
Navy and the merchant marine, as provided for in the Merchant 
Marine Act of 1936. 
137Tbid., p. 380. 
138 Zumwalt, “High-Low”, op. cit., p. r. 
189 Tbid., p. 4. 
'4°Transportation Institute, op. cit., p. 3-2. - 
141 Ibid., p. 3-4. 
2 Tbid., pp. 4-1 to 4-4. 
43 Ibid., p. 6-2. 
