41 
Before he enters a higher educational institution, the student must com- 
plete two years of practical employment.(/7,78) The Soviet system provides 
two advanced academic degrees for diploma holders who choose or are chosen 
to receive advanced training. These are the candidate (kandidat) and doctor 
(doktor) degrees. Althoughthey are theoretically sequential,a large number of 
doctorates are awarded onthe basis of merit to recipients who have never held 
a candidate's degree. Degrees are nota prerequisite for teaching and research, 
but are conferred in recognition of past or concurrent teaching or research per- 
28) The Soviet student usually gets his advanced degree at a later 
age than the American student, because he has been engaged in his profession 
formance. | 
and has made some originaland sometimes significant contribution. However, 
many who are capable of advanced degree work advance to administrative 
position and do not pursue graduate work.(’") Those who do are not ready to 
defend their candidate dissertations until they are past the age of 30,(43,79) 
From the time a researcher enters graduate school to his retirement, he has 
been classified by the State as a scientist or technologist. 
Types and Affiliations of 
Educational Institutions 
The educational institutions are of two types, multibranched or spe- 
cialized. The40 universities and 32 polytechnic institutes are multibranched. 
The specialized institutions include 199 pedagogical institutes and institutions 
which train in narrowly specialized subjects. The university faculties are, 
for the most part, devoted to the natural sciences. Over half of the uni- 
versity faculties deal withthe physical and mathematical sciences. The univer- 
sities control some of the scientific research institutes (NIIs) described in 
the Directory. According to the Minister, the transfer of certain scientific 
research institutes to the educational institutions had not developed in practice 
despite the provisions of the Educational Code, "mainly because the govern- 
ment has endeavored to preserve the self-sufficiency of even the smallest 
scientific research institutes . . .''.(44) The organizational forms were not 
yet smooth by the middle of 1962,(80,81) 
Role of the Problem Laboratories 
There are approximately 300 special problem and special study lab- 
oratories connected with educational institutions.(44) These laboratories 
are one of the organizational methods of stimulating scientific study, (82) They 
are staffed with the teachers of those faculties under which they are developed, 
but when necessary, co-workers of other departments are also involved. 
The staffs do not receive special compensation if their work is not based ona 
State contract. The engineering staffs are transitory as the members are 
students. An actual mission, successfully accomplished, may originate a 
