1998 Year of the Ocean Ocean Living Resources 



Box 1 (continued) 



Indirect use values: Maintenance of intact, healthy ecosystems provides global 

 and local benefits. Marine ecosystems provide natural goods and services such as 

 carbon storage; atmospheric gas regulation, particularly by the ocean's 

 enormously productive phytoplankton; nutrient cycling; and waste treatment. 

 Coral reefs, mangroves, and kelp forests protect coastal areas from weather and 

 storms. Marine algae contribute nearly 40 percent of global photosynthesis. In 

 many cases, indirect use values greatly exceed direct use values, yet they often are 

 not incorporated into economic calculations. Globally, the indirect use values of 

 marine ecosystems recently have been estimated at $5.2 trillion per annum for 

 open ocean ecosystems and $11.7 trillion for coastal ecosystems (Costanza et al. 

 1997). 



Option values: Many components of biodiversity not used, or even recognized 

 today, may help meet human needs in the future. Technological advances in food 

 production and pharmaceuticals rely heavily on the natural genetic diversity of 

 plants, animals, and microorganisms. Advances in molecular biology have 

 ensured that the coming century will see an acceleration in the use of genetic 

 materials. Marine organisms have evolved complex chemical compounds and 

 processes for defense and predation, or for survival in extreme environments — 

 such as deep sea hydrothermal vents. These compounds and the underlying 

 genetic diversity have tremendous potential economic importance that would be 

 foreclosed by the loss of marine biodiversity. 



Non-use values: The sea has been a source of ideas on subjects from past global 

 climates to the ecology of uncommon species, as well as a source of inspiration: 

 "The oceans, with their powerful storms, their shimmering palette of colors, and 

 their varied mysterious sea life, have inspired some of the world's finest painting, 

 poetry, stories, and music." (Norse 1993) The spiritual, cultural, or aesthetic 

 regard in which people hold the natural world and its resources and the values 

 humans place on retaining these systems for future generations are usually not 

 captured by current market or economic models, but are inextricably linked to 

 human appreciation of the sea and its inhabitants. This appreciation stimulates the 

 formation of conservation values and a stewardship ethic. 



Yet at the same time that humankind was learning more about the diversity of living 

 marine resources, it was also learning how to better exploit the marine envirorrment in search of 

 minerals, food, waste disposal, and transportation. As population increased, demands accelerated 

 for food, products, and services from the ocean, as did demands for living and recreational space 

 on its shores. 



C-6 



