1998 Year of the Ocean Ocean Living Resources 



• genetic effects on or competition with native species by non-indigenous cultured 

 species; 



• introduction of disease to natural populations. 



Economically important shrimp aquaculture operations in Asia were hit hard by disease in 1996. 

 The international community has acknowledged the need for sound marine aquaculture practices 

 so that it remains a sustainable industry with minimal adverse impacts on the surrounding 

 environment (Allsopp 1997). 



Protected Marine Species 



In the past, the exploitation or incidental capture of many marine species, along with a 

 lack of adequate natural resource management policies, led to the decline and even extinction of 

 many marine species. This process began early — ^the Steller's sea cow, the largest marine 

 herbivore known to have occupied America's coastal waters, was hunted to extinction in 

 1768 — ^and has continued into the second half of the 20th century. Current threats to marine 

 species remain significant. For example, many West Coast Pacific salmon populations are at risk; 

 scientists continue to seek answers to declines among some sea turtle, sea lion, seal, and seabird 

 populations; and the northern right whale is critically endangered with fewer than 300 animals 

 remaining in the Atlantic Ocean. 



Since the enactment of the Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA) in 1972 and the 

 Endangered Species Act (ESA) in 1973, selected marine species, particularly marine mammals, 

 sea turtles, and salmonids have received greatly enhanced levels of protection in the United 

 States. Pacific grey whale populations have largely recovered from overexploitation and have 

 been removed from the endangered species list. However, other species have shown little sign of 

 recovery despite two decades of protection. Of the 163 marine mammal stocks managed under 

 the MMPA, there is sufficient long-term population data to describe trends for only about one 

 third of the stocks. Eight of these are declining, 24 are stable, and 23 are believed to be 

 increasing (Figure 2; NMFS 1996). i 



There were 38 marine species and seabirds listed under the ESA as of December 1997. 

 Endangered marine species in U.S. waters include the northern right whale, sei whale, sperm 

 whale, finback whale, bowhead whale, blue whale, humpback whale, Hawaiian monk seal. West 

 Indian manatee, California least tern, hawksbill sea turtle, leatherback sea turtle, Kemp's ridley 

 sea turtle, shortnosed sturgeon. Certain populations of Steller sea lions, brown pelicans, roseate 

 tern, green sea turtles, olive ridley's sea turtles, sockeye salmon, chinook salmon, cutthroat trout, 

 and steelhead trout are also endangered. Threatened species in U.S. waters include marbled 

 murrelet, loggerhead sea turtle. Gulf sturgeon. Also threatened are certain populations of coho 

 salmon, chinook salmon, cutthroat trout, steelhead trout, Steller sea lion, southern sea otter, green 

 sea turtle, and olive ridley turtle. 



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