SCIENCE AND THE SEA 



By John W. Chamlor 



Maritime Safety Division 



U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office 



The powerful and unrelenting sea, though peaceful at times, is 

 the inevitable enemy of all who venture upon it. It follows, then, that 

 those who "go down to the sea in ships" and have accepted this calling 

 should undertake sufficient survival study to assure that what was 

 once their home unit not become their coffin. 



Survival in the sea depends upon four things: knowledge, equip- 

 ment available, self control, and training. Without these four 

 prerequisites, one^s chance of survival at sea would depend on the 

 severity of the situation. Many marinei's have been lost at sea 

 simply because they lacked sufficient training to know how to survive. 



It is the intent of this article to bring to the fore again, a few of 

 the basic principles of survival. 



PRE-ABANDONMENT 



In peacetime abandonment at sea is rare. Consequently, few 

 mariners today have been through this experience. Shifting cargo, 

 hull damage, machinery casualties, collisions, fire, and groundings, 

 however, are rather common. When any of these occur, abandon- 

 ment may be the ultimate consequence. 



The order to abandon ship is an irrevocable decision, made 

 usually under conditions of uncertainty, where all action directed 

 toward saving the ship ceases. The success of abandonment is 

 highly dependent upon the point in time when it is actually begun. 



Instances have been reported of premature abandonment. As 

 an example, one of these involved a Liberty ship which developed 

 cracks in the main deck during a North Atlantic gale. The ship 

 was hove to in order to ease the strain of pitching and rolling. She 

 remained in this condition for nearly three days. The weather 

 moderated on the third day and the ship proceeded to the nearest 

 port. On the fourth day a weather report, indicating further heavy 

 gales, was received and the Master decided to abandon ship. The 

 entire crew was rescued within a short period of time after aban- 

 donment. The ship remained afloat and finally beached itself on 

 one of the Hebrides Islands. Although not conclusive, the circum- 

 stances tend to suggest that the Master, in all probability, could 

 have reached port safely. 



ABANDONING SHIP 



As with most problems, there is a proper way in which one 

 should endeavor to abandon ship. The span of time between the 

 Commanding Officer's decision to abandon ship and the actual time 

 of departure is a most important one. In addition, it is also a 

 period of possible confusion and mental strain. If the time element 

 is sufficient, certain preparations can be made before the actual 

 time of abandonment. Of course, this would include having the 

 radio operator send out the required distress message. If a reply 

 is received, the fact should be made known to each boat and raft. 

 A final check on the position of the ship together with the range 

 and bearing to nearest land is vital information each life craft 

 should have. Other items such as a pilot chart, navigational chart, 

 sextant, chronometer, radio, plotting equipment, almanac, compass, 

 flash light, and navigational tables should be placed in some of 

 the life craft. 



Reaching an exposed deck is frequently difficult. Survivors of 

 sinkings have reported that some of their shipmates went down with 

 the ship because of the confusion attending the disaster. In many 

 instances, the compartments in which the men were trapped were 

 not actually cut off completely, only partially. These lives were 

 lost due to the development of habit and lack of foresight. 



When a man reports on board a new ship he usually learns the 

 easiest way from his bunk to his duty station and automatically 

 uses it in both directions, watch after watch. Thus, the habit of 

 using the same route day after day becomes so strong that in time 

 of emergency he finds it difficult, if not impossible, to utilize an 

 alternate avenue of escape. A collision or explosion may flood a 

 compartment through which the usual route passes, or knock out 

 a ladder that is customarily used. Every mariner should, therefore, 

 thoroughly know his ship. This familiarity can best be accomplished 

 by drills held at different times of the day and night. Those who 

 know all escape routes have an advantage that may mean the 

 difference between being trapped in a sinking vessel or getting away. 



Topsides training in the methods of abandoning ship can be 

 given in conjunction with these drills. The following points should 

 be frequently stressed: 



1. Whenever possible, men should abandon ship fully clothed but 

 without shoes. This principle applies equally well for any 

 latitude. 



2. When habitually used passageways and hatches are blocked or 

 cut off, individuals who know all escape routes have a far 

 better chance of reaching an exposed deck. 



3. If there is a choice, men should leave by the windward side of 

 a sinking vessel, and from either the bow or stern, whichever 

 is lowest in the water. 



4. If the ship is listing, men should leave by the side lowest in 

 the water. 



5. Jumping from the deck of a sinking ship with a high freeboard 

 introduces difficulties which do not appear when men abandon 

 ship by means of a ladder, cargo net. or line, etc. If at all 

 possible, men should leave by climbing down rather than 

 jumping over the side. The chance of landing on debris is 

 great. 



6. If one must jump, he should do so feet first, with the legs 

 together, the body erect, and life preserver securely fastened. 



7. When jumping from a ship that is entirely surrounded by 

 burning oil, it is best to jump to windward, feet first. Grab 

 the nose and cover the mouth with one hand and cover the 

 eyes with the other. A very deep breath should be taken 

 prior to the jump. The inherently buoyant life preserver and 

 shoes should be discarded. The CO2 inflatable preserver 

 should be kept on, but uninflated. Clothing should be worn, 

 however, as a protection against flames and debris. The 

 survivor should swim as long as he can under the surface of 

 the water. When it is necessary to come up for another 

 breath, the swimmer should look up, extend his arms above 

 his head and pull them in a wide vigorous sweep which will 

 aid him in coming to the surface. His hands and arms then 

 should make wide sweeping movements across the surface to 

 splash the water, thus driving away the flames momentarily, 

 forcing the upper part of the body above the surface and 

 allowing the man time to breathe. As he comes to the surface, 

 he should endeavor to turn his back to the wind before the 

 next breath is taken. After the breath is taken, he submerges 

 again, feet first (Standing Dive). This technique should be 

 repeated until he is clear of the burning oil. 



8. When a man reaches the water after abandoning ship, he 

 should attempt to get away from the ship by swimming his 

 fastest and most powerful stroke. He should put from 150 to 

 200 yards between himself and the ship before he stops to rest. 



9. In time of war or national emergency, the following lesson 

 may be well to remember. On many occasions during World 

 War II. the enemy strafed survivors from sinkings. In this 

 manner many men lost their lives not knowing that six to ten 

 feet of water would have saved them. This depth of water 

 will not stop the bullets, but it will deflect them away, giving 

 the survivor another chance. Five seconds is about the max- 

 imum length of time a modern aircraft can hold a small traget 

 in his gunsights. Conversely, it is rather easy for a swimmer 

 to hold his breath for 15 seconds. 



After a group of survivors have successfully reached the water, 

 their chances for eventual rescue will be improved greatly if a basic 

 pattern of behavior is followed. These elements are: 



1. When a man has reached a point between 150 and 200 yards 

 from his ship, he then should start making his way to one of 

 the life craft. 



2. He should conserve as much energy as safely possible, as an 

 unforseen emergency may arise calling for a large expenditure. 



3. If explosions are occurring, a survivor should swim on his 

 back with head and chest as far out of the water as possible- 



4. A survivor should remember that team work is required for 

 successful recovery and that his shipmates are not opponents 

 in this struggle. 



5. For the maximum number to survive, a group of survivors 

 should establish a definite chain of command. A capable 

 leader is a prerequisite for high morale. He will see that 

 available supplies are properly cared for, that lookout duties 



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