SCIENCE AND THE SEA 



In addition to being a name used to identify participating 

 vessels, however, the title "ships-of-opportunity" is now thought of 

 as embracing the entire concept of merchant ship utilization for 

 oceanographic research purposes. The main feature of this unique 

 means of obtaining scientific data that distinguishes it from regular 

 programs is the specification that the acquisition thereof is not to 

 interfere with the primary mission of the vessels involved. While 

 this element naturally imposes certain limitations on the type of re- 

 search that can be conducted, experience has shown that a number 

 of worthwhile programs can be tailored to fit the restrictions im- 

 posed by the fixed route, high speed, and shipboard routine character- 

 istic of merchant ship operations. Perhaps more importantly, the 

 preciseness of berth liner schedules and their steadfast adherence to 

 known routes present the scientific community with an unprecedented 

 opportunity to plan and conduct a variety of research over the sea- 

 lanes of the world. Indeed, it is this very singularity of purpose 

 peculiar to merchant ships which provides the researchers with a 

 simplex base from which to plan and outfit an expedition. 



Because of the variety of studies involved in oceanographic re- 

 search, ships-of-opportunity can mean different things to different 

 people. Depending upon the aspirations of sponsoring groups, the 

 types of research conducted in this manner and the techniques em- 

 ployed can vary from ship to ship. One or more programs can be 

 conducted from a single ship, utilizing gear supplied by the researcher, 

 or ship's equipment. The observations can be made by scientists 

 embarked for the purpose or by previously indoctrinated members 

 of the ship's personnel. Moreover, the data collected could be im- 

 mediately processed and recorded in mobile laboratories temporarily 

 deck-loaded or codified and radioed to specified receiving stations. 

 Undoubtedly, other variations can be introduced to meet the require- 

 ments of many research projects. 



The obvious flexibility of research activities permitted under this 

 program is one of its more attractive aspects. It offers, at least, 

 limited oceanic research capabilities to the many institutions now 

 engaged in oceanographic work. It could provide them, at least 

 theoretically, with an additional means of acquiring the special data 

 they desire, and lessen their dependence upon other research facilities 

 for needed information. As a companion benefit, any large usage of 

 ships-of-opportunity would lighten the tremendous burden of routine 

 survey and data collection responsibilities now imposed on our 

 harried research vessels. 



Probably the most attractive aspect of using ships-of-opportunity 

 as oceanographic platforms is the relatively low cost per scientific 

 observation that can be realized. This feature is afforded by the 

 fact that the vessel's operating costs are covered by the steamship 

 company responsible whether or not any research is conducted aboard. 

 By comparison, all costs involved in the operation of a special 

 research or survey ship must figure into the average cost-per- 

 observation, and as a result, that cost is considerably higher. 

 Another significant monetary saving is that which could be realized 

 if scientific institutions were relieved of the outlay of funding the 

 design, construction, and maintenance of numerous oceanographic 

 research vessels. Under the ships-of-opportunity concept, these 

 costs are defrayed by the merchant ship owners and operators. About 

 the only financial responsibility to be met by the scientific com- 

 munity would be in designing, procuring and maintaining the 

 scientific equipment used; transporting it to the ships; and paying 

 the usual ocean freight charges, passenger expenses, and whatever 

 shipboard labor costs that are incurred. 



BORN OF NECESSITY 



The concept of utilizing unconventional ships for oceanic data 

 collection grew out of the need to augment the nation's research 

 capabilities. The last two decades have witnessed a fantastic in- 

 crease of scientific interest in the marine environment, as well as 

 technological enthusiasm in exploiting oceanic resources. The in- 

 crease has been understandably accompanied by a growing demand 

 for field data. In addition to the extensive government sponsored 

 programs, such as ASWEPS, many private institutions, both large 

 and small, have become increasingly involved in oceanographic 

 research. As their programs expand, new avenues of study come 

 into focus which require precise field data for development; data 

 which can only be provided by ocean-going platforms. 



The demand for similar facilities is further heightened by the 

 recently awakened interest in the marine environment by a growing 

 number of scientists in so-called "non-oceanographic" fields, such as 

 aquatic biology and biomedical physics. 



For the most part, the burden of data collection in the open ocean 

 has fallen to our comparatively small fleet of specialized research 

 ships. In spite of several recent additions, augmentation of that 

 fleet has not been proportionate to the demands for its service. 

 Future increases in the size of the fleet will be limited due to existing 

 budgetary restrictions. If we, as a nation, are to realize the antici- 

 pated development of our oceanographic programs, we must keep 

 pace with the expanding requirements of its many components. The 

 ships-of-opportunity program appears to offer one of the more likely 

 means of attaining that goal. 



NOT A NEW IDEA 



Although the title "ships-of-opportunity" is a relatively new one, 

 the concept of using the deck of a merchant ship from which to per- 

 form scientific experiments dates back to antiquity. Many of the 

 early students of astronomy availed themselves of the observations 

 made aboard trading vessels. Prior to the American Revolution, 

 Benjamin Franklin took advantage of time spent upon merchant 

 ships to personally investigate the Gulf Stream. One can well imagine 

 the cooperative enthusiasm that this personable genius inspired 

 among the ship's crew. His studies resulted in the printing of a chart 

 showing the width, course, and speed of that current which was re- 

 markably accurate for its time. Furthermore, his sampling and 

 study of the "phosphorescent waters" led him to support the then 

 revolutionary theory that the phenomenon was organically induced. 



The exploits of Matthew Fontaine Maury are well known. 

 Probably no scientist has ever utilized the observations made by 

 mariners with greater results. Without the aid of a single survey 

 vessel, his systematic examination and analyses of meteorological 

 aTKJ hydrographic data recorded in myriad log books led to the genesis 

 of a series of wind and current charts which were to revolutionize 

 the world's trade routes. His "Abstract Logs", conceived and pre- 

 pared by Maury to enable mariners to tabulate their observations. 

 were the forerunner of the forms used by today's cooperfttfng 

 observers. 



Perhaps even the work of Nathaniel Bowditch can also be in- 

 cluded in this recap for although his computations were solely the 

 result of his remarkable mind. Captain Bowditch availed himself of 

 his crew's willingness to learn and thus was able to gear his classic 

 navigational solutions to the intellect of the average seaman. 



The U. S. Weather Bureau has utilized the ships-of-opportunity 

 concept for more than 60 years in fostering the growth of a network 

 of cooperative weather reporting ships. Today, the synoptic data 

 received from their network, which includes many foreign flag 

 vessels, enables the Weather Bureau to broadcast advisories and 

 transmit weather charts by facsimile. 



The direction and speed of ocean currents shown on Pilot Charts 

 and in Current Atlases, particularly those not associated with the 

 general circulation and those influenced by tidal action, have been 

 determined over the years largely from drift and set information 

 submitted by cooperating mariners. 



Thus, the research work begun by the far-seeing marine scientists 

 of the past, made possible only by the cooperation of the mariners 

 themselves, has provided us today with a sound background upon 

 which to model and extend a productive ships-of-opportunity program. 

 With a heritage such as this, the introduction of the scientist and 

 his tools aboard modern merchantmen should prove of no hardship 

 to the traditionally adaptable merchant seaman. 



ASWEPS 

 In addition to the commercial and academic applications of 

 synoptic oceanographic data, there is another, and perhaps more 

 urgent, requirement. Scientists have long been aware that Sonar 

 transmission can be deflected by water layers of differing tempera- 

 tures, salinities, and/or densities, a phenomenon which affords sub- 

 marines a distinct advantage over their surface adversaries. To reduce 

 this advantage in favor of our antisubmarine forces, the U. S. Navy, 

 under the coordination of its Oceanographic Office, established 

 the Antisubmarine Warfare Environmental Prediction Services 

 (ASWEPS) in 1959. The program was, and still is, experimental, its 



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