OCEANOGRAPHY AND THE MARINER 



A. J. Barther 



Marine Sciences Department 



U. S. Naval Oceanographic Office 



Oceanography can be properly defined as a combination of sciences 

 which deals with physical, chemical, biological, and dynamic properties, 

 as well as other phenomena found in, on, and around the earth's hydro- 

 sphere exclusive of strictly freshwater bodies. 



Many of Maury's theories in oceanography have been long since 

 disproven. However, his methods of scientific approach to the 

 problems of navigation cannot be denied as having been the founda- 

 tion of oceanographic studies in the U. S. Navy. 



HISTORY 



Study of oceanography in the U. S. Naval Oceanographic Office 

 had its inception about the year 1842, at which time Lieutenant 

 Matthew Fontaine Maury was appointed Officer-In-Charge of the 

 U. S. Naval Depot of Charts and Instruments. It was the foresight 

 and persistent efforts of Maury during early attempts to collect world- 

 wide data pertaining to the oceans which led to such developments 

 as the Wind and Current Charts of the North Atlantic of 1847, origi- 

 nally presented as a series of six charts. Also collected were data 

 pertaining to best sailing routes, fog limits, ice fields and icebergs, 

 rain areas, feeding grounds of whales, and other information which he 

 deemed of interest and value to mariners. 



In 1854, the Depot was redesignated the "U. S. Naval Observa- 

 tory and Hydrographical Office". Congress separated the two 

 in 1866 to increase the responsibilities and scope of the latter by 

 authorizing The Hydrographic Office to carry out surveys, collect 

 information, and print every kind of nautical chart and publication 

 for the benefit and use of navigators generally. 



Purchase of the copyright to The New American Practical Navi- 

 gator was one of the first acts of the new Office. Several volumes of 

 Sailing Directions had already been published. The Notice to 

 Mariners appeared in 1869. The first Pilot Chart was issued in 

 December 1883. Radio Navigational warnings were broadcast 

 in 1907, and the International Ice Patrol was established in 1912, 

 following the TITANIC disaster. 



Maury's tenure with the Hydrographic Office terminated in 

 1861, but his work in oceanography was furthered by his successor. 

 Captain Robert H. Wyman, Hydrographer , who reorganized the 

 Office in 1871 and created a department of meteorology. Though 

 seriously understaffed, the Division of Marine Meteorology managed 

 to produce Pilot Charts which were in high demand. In 1904, the 

 Hydrographic Office was relieved of all responsibility for collecting 

 ocean weather data by executive order of President Roosevelt. The 

 majority of meteorological data used in the construction of Pilot 

 Charts since that time has been furnished by the U. S. Weather 

 Bureau. Development of a new depth finder and use of aerial 

 photographs in 1922, led to improved charts and soundings. 



In 1924, a conference of various Government agencies was 

 organized for the purpose of investigating the possibility and feasi- 

 bility of conducting a research expedition in oceanography with 

 Navy vessels. Though many representatives from branches of the 

 State, Treasury, War, and Navy Departments attended this con- 

 ference, nothing seems to have developed at this first attempt to 

 support an oceanographic program in the U. S. Navy. Investigations 

 begun in 1927 by the Committee on Oceanography of the National 

 Academy of Sciences — National Research Council resulted in the 

 recommendation that oceanographic research be undertaken by a 

 Navy vessel specially fitted for the work. These investigations 

 enabled the Hydrographic Office to acquire its first supply of ocean- 

 ographic equipment which was used only incidentally in the survey 

 work of the hydrographic ship, U S S HANNIBAL, in 1931. Co- 

 operating observers on merchant and naval vessels also submitted 

 numerous oceanographic observations. 



Late in 1945, with termination of the war, a conference was 

 convened for the purpose of determining views with regard to forma- 

 tion of a Division of Oceanography in the Hydrographic Office. The 

 Division became a reality on 1 February 1946 but got off to a slow 

 start due to demobilization and deployment of practically all ocean- 

 ographers to Bikini Atoll. The purpose of the Division was to 

 collect, codify, coordinate, and implement basic oceanographic re- 

 search for various government activities. It was also charged with 

 the responsibility of preparing charts, manuals, and other publica- 

 tions of an oceanographic nature for the Navy, Merchant Marine, 

 fishery industries, and airlines. 



GENERAL 



Today the U. S. Naval Oceanographic Office makes hydrographic, 

 topographic, and geomagnetic surveys in international waters and 

 along foreign coasts. In addition, it occupies an important position 

 in oceanographic work. Because of its responsibilities for the safety 

 of ships and aircraft, the Oceanographic Office has a worldwide 

 interest in the oceans. Data are systematically collected from public 

 and private institutions and persons in all parts of the world. 

 Another responsibility of the Oceanographic Office is to foster inter- 

 national cooperation in the study of the oceans and to promote free 

 exchange with other hydrographic offices. The Oceanographic Office 

 Oceanographic Analysis Division prepares classified and unclassified 

 oceanographic charts, manuals, and special reports with the aid of 

 available data. The Oceanographic Prediction Division provides 

 ice, wave, and sea water temperature forecasts in addition to supply- 

 ing experimental ship routing services. The Marine Survey Division 

 performs oceanographic surveys in domestic as well as in international 

 waters. 



Recent establishment of the National Oceanographic Data 

 Center administered by the Oceanographic Office, where all data are 

 processed and distributed to interested parties, will contribute greatly 

 toward achievement of the objectives of the science of oceanography. 



TIDES AND CURRENTS 



Increased interest in synoptic oceanographic conditions and 

 development of forecasting techniques has resulted in increased 

 basic and applied research in many fields of oceanography. Pre- 

 diction of tides and currents has been presented for many years by 

 means of tide tables and current charts. 



Methods of air-sea rescue were studied thoroughly during World 

 War II for the purpose of locating life rafts and survivors of downed 

 aircraft. The principle consisted mainly of the application of 

 available data on surface currents and wind drift to determine the 

 probable direction and rate of drift of any object on the sea surface. 



The chart on the reverse side of this article represents one of the 

 most comprehensive current prediction studies to date. 



Current charts have been prepared to show general surface and 

 subsurface circulation of all oceans. However, more important 

 large scale harbor and coastal current charts have been prepared to 

 aid the mariner and engineer in circumventing navigational and 

 constructional hazards incurred by treacherous effects of tidal, rip, 

 overfall, and runoff currents produced by headlands, shoals, break- 

 waters, and the like. 



Current measurements are determined by numerous methods 

 including calculations from ship navigation, subsurface tracking, and 

 by electronic or mechanical means, dyes, etc. Free-floating bottles 

 and cards are used to give general direction of currents when drift 

 rates are not a required measurement. 



Tidal range can be predicted only by use of past conditions or 

 through complicated calculations which take into consideration all 

 major tide-producing forces. The latter system has been made rela- 

 tively easy by development of the tide predicting machine, which to 

 the present time has proven to be more practical than electronic 

 computers. It is hoped, however, at some time in the future to 

 convert the system to analog computer adaptation for more rapid and 

 reliable predictions. 



Storm surges, often found piled on the normal tides, are more 

 difficult to predict in view of their relatively sudden occurrence. 

 Importance of the tides can be seen in the braking effect which they 

 have on the spinning of the earth. Across eons they have increased 

 the rotation period from four hours to twenty-four hours. Though 

 the change is not of sufficient magnitude or rate to be of concern to 

 man, it nevertheless takes place and will eventually result in a greatly 

 altered day consisting of longer periods of total light or darkness. 



