OCEANOGRAPHY AND THE MARINER 



Few fouling organisms are found in fresh-water areas. For this 

 reason, ships transiting such water are provided with some degree of 

 temporary protection. Contrary to popular belief, marine fouling 

 organisms do not detach themselves from the hull of a ship which 

 enters freshwater; they are killed if they remain in it for a sufficient 

 period of time. Studies have shown that the layer of dead organisms 

 abets corrosion in some cases and delays it in others. In any event, 

 the layer does provide an excellent substratum for the attachment 

 of new organisms once the ship re-enters saline waters. 



Growth and accumulation rates of fouling organisms are 

 dependent on seasonal distribution of environmental factors such as 

 temperature, salinity, sunlight, and nutrient material, all of which 

 control breeding rates, and consequently, egg production and spat 

 settlements. Through an understanding of the physiology of the 

 various fouling organisms, the marine biologist and chemist are able 

 to improve the effectiveness of fouling inhibitors. 



Large ships enjoy considerable immunity from disablement by 

 entanglement foulers by virtue of their sheer power and size. 

 Smaller vessels, such as lighters and amphibians can become severely 

 entangled in areas where extremely dense plant growth exists. 

 Average size of the most troublesome entanglement foulers is only a 

 few feet, however, the giant kelp of the Pacific sometimes attains 

 lengths of several hundred feet. Growth of entanglement foulers 

 is most luxuriant where the substratum provides a good anchoring 

 ground for hold-fasts. Offshore rocky bottoms are typically good 

 areas of growth, especially when the nutrient supply is ample and 

 depths are sufficient to prevent or mitigate erosion due to excessive 

 wave conditions. All shallow inshore areas, regardless of the nature 

 of the substrata, are poor areas for growth if the bottom is subject 

 to continual adverse effects of high waves or strong currents. Most 

 of these entanglement foulers, so undesirable from the mariner's 

 viewpoint, have been converted into edible forms, especially in 

 countries such as Japan. 



One remaining aspect of the ocean included in the field of 

 marine biology is bioluminescence. Thousands of species of plant 

 and animal life possess light-bearing or light-producing organs. The 

 smallest of these forms of life, when disturbed within the water, can 

 produce intense concentrations of light. Depending on the organism, 

 involved, these light displays are classified as either glowing-ball, 

 sheet, or spark-type. 



Bioluminescence occurs most frequently in warmer surface 

 water, but may be considerable under favorable conditions in cold 

 northern waters. Several occurrences of bioluminescent displays in 

 warm tropical waters have been attributed by shipmasters to high- 

 frequency radiation from radar equipment. Lack of research along 

 these lines prevents authentication of such reports. Of benefit to the 

 mariner is the outlining of shoals and reefs by breaking waves 

 containing these organisms. Much research on the physiology and 

 chemistry of bioluminescence has been performed for the purpose of 

 seeking-out uses for such manifestations. However, no valuable 

 application has been found to date other than as a source of "cold 

 light". Moistened powder produced from the bodies of luminescent 

 marine animals served the Japanese as a wartime substitute for 

 artificial light for reading messages at night. Fishermen of Portugal 

 enhance the quality of bait by rubbing luminous exudate on it while 

 fishermen of the Banda Islands use the luminous organ of a fish as 

 an effective bait. 



Color, transparency, and chemistry of sea water properly belong 

 to the regime of the physical oceanographer . However, since 

 these factors are of importance in understanding the relation between 

 plants and animals and their marine habitat, they are also measured 

 by the marine biologist during the course of his research. 



THE FUTURE 



Oceanography has had but a short life span in the United States. 

 Foreign scholars, however, have been actively engaged in the fields 

 of marine science for a considerable number of years. Through 

 their studies, we have come to understand some of the vast ocean's 

 mysteries. Their research has given sufficient impetus to the 

 American school to enable it to grow from the handful of eight lab- 

 oratories in 1920 to the present number of about seventy. It would 

 be difficult, indeed, to predict the future course of marine sciences. 

 At best, the prediction will be inaccurate owing to the very nature 

 of research itself. Research and discovery in any field of scientific 



pursuit must necessarily be limited to the ability, ambition, and 

 imagination of the individual scientist. 



Due to the fact that oceanography is not a true science, but 

 actually entails a combination of all earth sciences, the promotion of 

 marine study has suffered greatly in the past if compared to other 

 fields. One may ask, "Why do we want to know about the ocean?" 

 Depending on one's views, this question may be answered in any 

 number of ways. First of all, we want to study the ocean simply 

 because it is there and unknown. Its challenge is equal in our eyes 

 to the space problem; the adventuresome spirit of man does not rest 

 until he has discovered and understood that which is strange and 

 unfamiliar to him. Theoretically, all life including man arose from 

 the sea, yet many of us look upon it with a feeling of awe. We also 

 realize that the oceans hold the key to our past, present and future 

 in that our unknown history is locked securely in its mysterious 

 depths. By prying these secrets from the oceans, we can provide 

 ourselves with a great deal of knowledge concerning the "whys" and 

 "wherefores" of the oceans. Why do they exist? How long have 

 they existed? What purpose do they serve? How can we further 

 our utilization of them? On and on, many more similar questions 

 evolve in our minds. Slowly but surely with both good and bad 

 work, in difficult and trying situations, we will eventually force the 

 oceans to reveal its mysteries. To be sure, we can learn much of 

 the history of our planet by probing into space and going back in 

 time, but the best way would be to delve into the oceans on our 

 own earth. Through the ability to read the records which still lie 

 in the sediments , rocks , and chemistry of sea water, we can learn 

 much about the history of earth and of life itself. 



Oceanography consists of much more than observing waves 

 from the shore or collecting shells on the beach. For years, man 

 has been limited to indirect methods of observing a small fraction of 

 what lies beneath the opaque mantle of the sea surface. Develop- 

 ment of skindiving equipment has enabled man to descend a short 

 distance into his former element to observe first hand the environ- 

 ment which seems so remote to him now. Perhaps he is looking for 

 the answer to what kind of life the fish lives, or could it in truth be 

 an evolutionary inclination to return to the protective bosom of the 

 sea? Man has surely exposed himself to numerous handicaps by 

 emerging from the sea and lives without hope of ever completely 

 conquering all the problems presented by his new environment. 

 New avenues of ocean exploration have been afforded with develop- 

 ment of underwater television and the bathyscaph. With the latter, 

 man has almost penetrated the full seven miles to the known 

 ultimate deeps. These research apparatuses have been in existence 

 for only a few years. Who can say what as yet undiscovered 

 apparatus lies in the future to serve man in his quest to better his 

 knowledge of the ocean? 



Our present knowledge and theories are amazing, but new-found 

 answers in the future will be greater. We must explore and sample 

 many new regions — the plains, ridges, fissures, trenches, and shelves 

 which comprise the ocean floor. Revelation of ancient earth history 

 will lead to better understanding of our environment and enable us 

 to decipher the history of the planets. It is necessary and vital that 

 we study the waters and animal life in the ocean in order to solve 

 the origin and evolution of life on earth. We must find and study 

 the undersea rivers which have flow rates a thousands times as great 

 as the largest land rivers. We must find the way to determine the 

 number of fish in the sea and how to control their quantity, if we 

 are to increase their numbers. The welfare of many of the world's 

 people is heavily dependent on the harvest from the sea. These and 

 many other problems of the economic and defense requirements of 

 society can be solved only by studying the oceans and the world 

 above and beneath them. 



A third of all sunlight striking earth is used for evaporation 

 of sea water and a goodly portion of the remaining sunlight is absorbed 

 as heat by the water or reflected into the atmosphere. If we can 

 learn to control the distribution of this heat budget, understand the 

 storage of gas in the sea, and complete our knowledge of the air-sea 

 boundary and deep mixing processes, then we can possibly predict 

 and regulate climatic conditions. 



Electronically-equipped, nuclear and diesel propelled sub- 

 marines have collected a considerable amount of oceanographic 

 data which have intensified our knowledge of the behavior of the 

 Arctic oceanic ice cover and have served as platforms for testing and 

 developing oceanographic instruments for the future. More stable 

 platforms such as the ARGUS ISLAND near Bermuda are excellent 



