inland activities. Despite the general lack of eco- 
nomic data on strictly marine-oriented recreation, 
the data that do exist, combined with information 
on the geographic distribution of the population, in- 
dicate that direct and indirect expenditures for ma- 
rine recreation have a sizable economic impact. The 
Nathan study estimated consumer expenditures on 
ocean recreation in 1972 at $4.1 billion. 
The 1965 National Survey of Outdoor Recreation 
published by the Bureau of Outdoor Recreation in- 
dicated that the average American spent 2.26 days 
fishing, 1.58 days swimming in the ocean, 0.16 days 
sailing, 1.56 days motorboating, and 0.43 days water 
skiing. 
The Heritage Conservation and Recreation Serv- 
ice (formerly the Bureau of Outdoor Recreation) 
estimates that marine sport fishing expenditures were 
$3.4 billion in 1975. The economic impact of sport 
fishing on marine recreation, however, results not 
only from the sales of fishing, boating, diving, and 
other specialized equipment, but from expenditures 
for food, !odging, gasoline, souvenirs, and the myriad 
of other goods and services required by vacationers 
and weekend visitors. 
Other Uses and Concerns 
In the forefront of today’s concerns about ocean 
and coastal usage is the present and prospective 
siting of major energy production facilities. The 
availability of cooling water and discharge areas, 
proximity to major markets, and availability of 
transportation facilities contribute to a concentra- 
tion of energy plants in the coastal region. Current 
expansion of Outer Continental Shelf oil and gas 
drilling, continued growth in energy demands re- 
quiring new nuclear and fossil fuel electric generat- 
ing plants, as well as prospective use of the nearshore 
waters as sites for floating powerplants and deep- 
water ports, all represent increased reliance on the 
coastal area for energy supplies. This increased reli- 
ance causes problems, some environmental in nature, 
others of a social and economic type. As a result, 
major public controversies surround many proposed 
coastal energy facility sites. 
The ocean has long been used as a receptacle for 
wastes. Disposal of municipal and industrial wastes 
in the oceans is deemed by many to be acceptable 
as long as waste disposal is controlled to prevent 
environmental degradation. Ocean waters can absorb 
tremendous quantities of the waste products of civili- 
zation. There is a real economic offset value for these 
uses, although it is nearly impossible to evaluate. Al- 
though the scientific data to determine the limits of 
the ocean’s absorptive capacity are just now being 
developed, the data indicate that the ocean has been 
severely strained in some coastal areas. A major 
concern in this respect is the quantity of pollutants 
entering the ocean from rivers and streams, and even 
from the atmosphere. Our stake in the ocean in- 
cludes not just its uses and resources, but its preser- 
vation as a resource. 
The most publicized causes of environmental con- 
cern have been oil pollution resulting from drilling 
operations or from maritime accidents involving oil 
tankers, such as the sinking of the Torrey Canyon 
in the late 1960s off the coast of England or of the 
Amoco Cadiz in March 1978 near the French coast. 
Concern about the marine environment, however, 
extends beyond oil pollution to the destruction of 
estuarine and wetland fish-breeding habitats, over- 
fishing of certain fish and marine mammal species, 
ocean dumping of waste products in areas where 
they may cause environmental pollution, and envi- 
ronmental attention resulting from the operation of 
powerplants. These concerns have led to regulatory 
activities to reduce the potential for harm to the 
ocean environment. 
Summary 
Throughout its history, the United States has 
made significant use of the ocean. With the advent 
of the science of oceanography in the 1930s, this use 
has gradually grown, propelled in part by national 
defense reasons and in part by economic incentive. 
Now, commercial use of the ocean is a major compo- 
nent of the national economy. There are traditional 
uses such as ocean transportation and fishing plus 
newer uses such as offshore oil and gas exploitation. 
Recreational use of coastal areas has grown rapidly 
in recent years. Concentrations of population and 
industry along the coast have contributed to the dam- 
age of ocean coastal waters in some areas. Scientists 
meanwhile work to advance our understanding of the 
composition of the ocean, as well as its characteris- 
tics and condition. 
Use of, and public interest in, the ocean is in- 
creasing. Conflicts among uses exist, most obviously 
along increasingly cramped coastal areas. As use of 
the offshore areas increases, similar conflicts among 
users will arise. The challenge of the 1980s is to 
ensure that our private and public institutions are 
capable of developing, conserving, and protecting the 
ocean resources and the marine environment. 
