or fecal contamination, or the presence of mercury in 
pelagic fish, directly affects the public. These inci- 
dents of environmental pollution are perceived as 
discrete occurrences, and are seldom seen as part of 
a matrix of man-induced uses that accumulate over 
time. 
This chapter (1) describes the physical, socio- 
economic, and demographic characteristics of coastal 
regions; (2) discusses the Coastal Zone Management 
Act of 1972 (CZMA) in terms of its provisions and 
the basis for regulatory power over coastal uses; 
(3) assesses the status of the States’ participation in 
the coastal management program; and (4) reviews 
planning and regulation of specific uses of the coastal 
region for wetland protection, coastal recreation, 
energy facility siting, offshore and onshore power 
generation, and offshore mining. 
The Coastal Region 
The coastal region, in a generic sense, is the com- 
paratively narrow band of land and ocean waters 
that bounds the periphery of the Nation. It includes, 
by definition, estuaries and embayments that are 
infused by freshwater from the discharge of inland 
rivers. Included are the Great Lakes—the inland 
seas, which have problems of resource use and pro- 
tection similar to the seaward boundaries of the 
Nation. The U.S. coastal region extends 88,000 
miles along the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific Coasts; 
another 11,000 miles along the shores of the Great 
Lakes; and 2,500 miles along the island perimeters 
of Hawaii, Guam, Puerto Rico, the Trust Territories, 
and Virgin Islands.‘ In this region where ocean use 
and la.id use interact there is special need to protect 
the valuable natural features, to allocate the mu- 
tually dependent land and ocean resources, and to 
resolve the conflicts among competing uses. 
Physiographic Characteristics 
The physical setting, as much as any other factor, 
determines the use capability of the coasts, and 
hence, the kind and extent of development. In the 
northern coastal regions, where glaciation was 
severe, the coastline is rugged, steep, and indented 
by fiordlike embayments that are rimmed with 
craggy rocks and have a narrow intertidal area. To 
the south where present coasts were once covered 
by the ocean, the coastal plain is flat, incised by 
numerous rivers and shallow embayments that form 
extensive estuaries, and fringed by wide beaches and 
broad intertidal margins. Here, where freshwater 
and saltwater constantly mix, are extensive tidelands 
and wetlands. 
In Alaska, along the Bering and Chuckchi Seas, 
the tundra meets the ocean to form a unique segment 
of continental margin. The coasts of Hawaii are of 
volcanic origin and significantly different than main- 
land coastal systems. Guam, the Trust Territories, 
and the Virgin Islands are in tropical waters, and 
coral geology influences their coastal regions. 
All coastal areas change continuously. The effects 
of erosion, wave action, and sediment deposit con- 
tinually alter the shape of the coast in gradual and 
sometimes dramatic ways. Barrier islands along the 
Atlantic and Gulf Coasts are continually molded as 
sand is eroded and moved laterally. Storms occa- 
sionally split land areas and form new islands. The 
natural processes of accretion, avulsion, and erosion 
influence man’s use of the coastal margin. In turn, 
man’s activities can severely modify and alter the 
natural processes of coastal dynamics. 
The coastal ecosystems that have developed 
within these physiographic regions are products of 
the topography, geochemistry, and the climate. The 
viability of each ecosystem depends upon maintain- 
ing the balance among these components. Hence, any 
factor which tends to disrupt the natural equilibrium 
of the environmental complex can cause changes in 
the physical and biological characteristics. The sen- 
sitivity of natural systems to change varies consid- 
erably over the range of the coastal margin. Five 
coastal features are particularly vulnerable to altera- 
tion or disturbance: (1) tidelands and wetlands, (2) 
islands, (3) dunes, (4) estuaries, and (5) coral reefs. 
Tidelands and Wetlands 
These coastal lands are covered periodically by 
saltwater. Wetlands are usually vegetated with 
grasses, sometimes with mangroves. In the upper 
regions of certain bays, saltwater wetlands merge 
with freshwater wetlands. Nearer the ocean, the 
wetlands undergo periodic tidal washes. The vegeta- 
tion in these areas plays a key role in the food chain 
of the adjacent estuarine system. Dead leaves and 
organic matter are broken down into small particles 
(detritus), which are the energy source for a variety 
of marine life, including juvenile fish and shellfish. 
A more detailed discussion of wetlands, their 
4 Panel Reports, volume 1, op. cit. note 1, p. III-7. 
IV—2 
