sioned by the Department of Transportation, and 
released in 1975, found that most recreational plan- 
ning neither considers transportation access nor takes 
into account the needs of that part of the public 
which depends on public transportation.*** 
Transportation and recreation have become even 
more intimately entwined with the need for energy 
conservation and the goal of reducing air pollution 
caused by auto emissions. Boston’s Revere Beach 
is one of the few examples of a coastal public beach 
124 Ibid., p. 10. 
125 Ibid., p. 145. 
facility that is adequately served by high-speed 
public travel on the rapid rail line.'?? However, few 
urban areas are blessed with high-quality beach 
facilities as close to the inner city as Boston. 
The long-range effects of higher fuel costs on 
recreation need to be examined. There are already 
indications, some researchers report, of a trend 
toward fewer visitations, but of longer duration. 
Demand forecasts for marine recreation need to take 
into account expected higher transportation costs 
in the future as well as increased costs of operating 
boats. 
Conflicting Uses 
With increased demand for recreational space 
coupled with a dwindling acrcage of suitable land 
available to serve the recreational public, pressures 
on the coast are mounting. Recreational activities 
are as diverse as the public itself. New forms of 
recreation are developing rapidly through the evolu- 
tion of technology and innovation. Many of the new 
uses impose changing demands on coastal recrea- 
tion facilities, and further complicate the conflicts 
between active and passive recreational pursuits. 
Dune buggies, dirt bikes, and hang-gliders were 
rarities on the beaches a number of years ago. To- 
day, these offroad vehicles and airborne craft are 
claiming an equal right to beach access. Such activi- 
ties conflict with a number of “traditional” coastal- 
oriented activities, e.g., bathing, hunting, bird and 
wildlife watching, and surf fishing. 
The problem of resolving conflicts among compet- 
ing uses is illustrated in the Gateway Natural Recrea- 
tional Area in New York. The pressures here are 
magnified by the estimated 20 to 30 million visitors 
who will use the four segments of the gateway in 
the future. The four units of the Park have been 
historically used by nearby residents of Sandy Hook, 
N.J., and Staten Island, Jamaica Bay, and Breezy 
Point, N.Y. Local residents are only one interest 
group that the National Park Service must accom- 
modate; they are the majority users and are not 
generally amenable to the recreational areas being 
made easily available to masses of “outsiders”— 
particularly inner-city residents. 
Other segments of the tax-paying public bring 
counter pressures. Fishermen want to bring their 
surf vehicles to the shore; boaters demand expanded 
marina facilities and boat ramps; model airplane 
enthusiasts want space to pursue their hobby. 
Environmentalists, on the other hand, prefer that the 
areas be left in a natural state, even though the 
Park is on the doorstep of New York City. 
The National Park Service (NPS) has agonized 
over the transportation problem in the face of simi- 
lar opposing forces. Parking has been partially re- 
stricted, and bus service, rather than rail transporta- 
tion, was chosen for commuters. A ferry service is 
also being considered. 
The NPS has proposed building several “Gateway 
Villages,” which would accommodate a variety of 
activities, including gardens and recreational facili- 
ties. The Sierra Club, on the other hand, is con- 
cerned that the centers will become “urban amuse- 
ment and athletic centers.” In fact, the Sierra Club 
sees the pressures on NPS to accommodate major 
active recreational functions as a key test of the 
National Park System. The Sierra Club anticipates 
that with State and local governments strapped for 
recreational funds, there will be increased pressure 
to fill the recreational void in national recreational 
areas. Environmentalists view areas like Gateway 
as the last.chance to preserve some near-natural 
areas for the education and enjoyment of the urban 
resident.'*° 
126 Anon., “Gateway—the Promise and Problem of National 
Urban Recreational Areas,” Sierra Club Bulletin, Summer of 
1977, p. 33. 
Role of the Private Sector 
The private sector plays a major role in providing 
the public with recreational opportunities. Overall, 
private recreational lands (coastal and noncoastal) 
exceed the acreage of public recreational lands: 
504 million acres in private ownership, and 491 
million acres in public ownership.’*’ The marine 
127 U.S. Department of the Interior, op. cit. note 99, p. 95. 
recreational industry, while difficult to assess, is 
estimated to have been a $5.5 billion activity in 1972 
and is expected to grow to $12 billion by the year 
2000.28 
128 U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Commerce. The 
Economic Value of Ocean Resources to the United States, by 
Nathan Associates. Washington, D.C., Government Printing 
Office, 1974. 
IV-58 
