behavior, fate, and effects of potential pollutants; and 
(3) a system of control and regulation of the uses 
made of the sea and the cumulative adverse impacts 
that may result from such uses. The first two require- 
ments are within the domain of the basic and applied 
sciences. The third is the purview of the Federal, 
State, and local governments within the United States, 
and of the international community beyond national 
sovereignty. 
Although regulation and control of activities that 
can harm the ocean environment is a function of 
public law, regulatory programs depend on science 
to detect and measure pollutants and their harmful 
effects, to determine levels of concentration, and 
to establish acceptable levels of release. Important 
parameters that must be known about a pollutant to 
impiement an effective regulatory system include: ° 
@ rates of release into the environment, 
® lifetimes in the environment (or residence times in 
contact with biological systems), 
® concentration factors for various parts of the sys- 
tem (e.g., surface fills or estuaries) or in organisms 
(bioaccumulation), and 
© levels of toxicity. 
Therefore, a balance must be maintained between 
substantive knowledge and legal process in order to 
achieve optimal use of the resources, maintain eco- 
nomic growth, and protect the ocean environment. 
The world ocean has two major zones: the coastal 
ocean and the open ocean. The latter comprises the 
bulk of oceanic space found beyond the continental 
slopes. With few exceptions, such as some productive 
equatorial waters and recently discovered areas of 
high productivity near the Galapagos Islands, the 
Open-ocean areas are characterized by much lower 
productivity. Based on present knowledge, there is 
little expectation that major developments and exten- 
sive use will be made of the vast portion of the open 
ocean. Deep-seabed mining, for instance, would oc- 
cupy but a small proportion of open-ocean space 
when fully developed. 
The coastal ocean, on the other hand, constitutes 
only 10 percent of the total oceanic area and includes 
estuaries, lagoons, inshore waters, many marginal 
seas, and waters over the continental shelves and 
slopes. These waters are highly productive and repre- 
sent the areas of greatest biological activity. Primary 
production of organic matter in the coastal ocean 
forms the basis for food chains supporting fish, birds, 
and marine mammals. 
Withir the coastal ocean are isolated areas of 
exceptionally productive waters—areas of upwell- 
ing—where a combination of strong offshore winds 
and prevailing boundary currents bring nutrient-rich 
deep water to the surface and move the warm coastal 
waters seaward. Here, the primary productivity is 
exceptionally high and leads to large fish stocks. The 
region between the littoral zone—the area just off 
the coastline—and the beginning of the open ocean 
over the continetal slope supports the most produc- 
tive fisheries. 
The coastal ocean is affected directly by rivers, 
terrestrial runoff. and drainage, and by domestic and 
industrial wastes. The coastal region contains most 
of the Nation’s major metropolitan areas and gener- 
ally continues to increase in population and expand 
in industrial activity (see Chapter IV). These trends 
indicate a potential for increased impacts on the 
environment of the coastal ocean. In addition, devel- 
opment of oil and gas, mining of sand and gravel and 
cther mineral commodities on the continental shelf, 
installation of shoreside and offshore power gener- 
ating stations, siting of other water-oriented industrial 
activities, an increase in tanker traffic, and the expan- 
sion of oceanborne trade overall will continue to 
affect the environment in the coastal] region unless 
carefully controlled. 
The marine environment of the coastal ocean is of 
particular concern because: (1) it receives the great- 
est infusion of pollutants from the coastal and inland 
regions, (2) it is economically the most important 
oceanic region for the United States, and (3) to a 
large extent, the Federal Government and the States 
exert control over the activities and uses of the ter- 
ritorial seas. While pollution transport across inter- 
national borders with Canada and Mexico and from 
more distant countries may occur, it is largely domes- 
tic activities that affect the coastal waters. 
The Oceans and Climate 
Within the world community, as well as within the 
United States, there is a growing awareness that our 
economic and social well-being are profoundly in- 
fluenced by climatic variations. To some degree, 
energy requirements, food production, freshwater 
Supplies, transportation, and health are ali climate- 
sensitive, and major climate changes would affect the 
® National Academy of Sciences, op. cit. note 4, p. 4. 
biological environment and the economy.'®'* Con- 
cerns regarding climate do not center around the 
extremely long-term shifts such as the coming of an 
“ice age,” but rather focus on persistent changes in 
1 National Academy of Sciences—National Research Council, 
_U.S. Committee for the Global Atmospheric Research Program. 
Understanding Climate Change—A Program for Action, Wash- 
ington D.C., 1975, p. 1. 
4 Federal Coordinating Council for Science, Engineering, and 
Technology, Committee on Atmosphere and Oceans. A United 
States Climate Program Plan. Washington, D.C., Government 
Printing Office, 1977. 
VI-4 
