present-day temperatures and rainfall patterns and 
the resulting impacts on food production. 
The oceans exert a powerful influence on the 
Earth’s climate, the productivity of the seas, and the 
changes that occur there, both naturally and as a 
result of our activities. Oceanic waters are vital to 
the Earth’s climate systems. They absorb, store, and 
redistribute most of the solar radiation absorbed by 
the Earth’s surface. This heat capacity regulates 
cyclical global climate shifts over time. 
With the significant and sometimes catastrophic 
effect of climate on human living conditions, the 
need for anticipating or predicting climatic changes 
becomes more critical. This capability requires a 
better understanding of the natural interactions 
among the oceans, atmosphere, and climate and of 
the effects on climate of both oceanic and atmos- 
pheric pollution. 
Development of a predictive capability requires 
time-series data on heat storage and stability of the 
oceans; exchange between the atmosphere and 
Oceans; oceanic heating patterns and temporary and 
long-term anomalies, mixing depth, rate and space 
variations; poleward air movement and release of 
heat; wind stress and surface roughness; and circu- 
lating patterns. How pollution affects these factors 
that determine the climatic patterns is little under- 
stood. 
There has been concern recently about the pos- 
sible effects of the increasing level of atmospheric 
carbon dioxide and the corresponding capacity of the 
ocean to absorb greater amounts in its role as a 
carbon dioxide sink. Although we now understand 
the fundamentals of heat islands, albedo, and green- 
house effects, we have barely touched the surface of 
understanding the climatic effects of our own activ- 
ities. 
Today, atmospheric and climatic information is 
obtained from only 22 percent of the Earth’s sur- 
face and only 2 percent of this is gathered over the 
71 percent of the Earth’s surface covered by the 
ocean.'? No single nation has the resources or capa- 
bility to collect all the necessary information. The 
problem belongs to all nations and therefore the 
solution will hinge on organizing cooperative efforts 
at both national and international levels. 
Ocean Pollution Research and Monitoring 
At least 8 departments, 9 independent agencies, 
and 37 agencies or subagencies administer Federal 
ocean research programs. These activities are carried 
on without coordinated national objectives. Each 
agency pursues its own objectives and interests 
based upon individual legislative mandates. There is 
some coordination and knowledge among agencies 
regarding other agency programs; however, in large 
part this depends on the individuals managing the 
various programs. Indeed, in some instances, even 
within a single agency one office is often unaware, 
in a meaningful sense, of another’s efforts. Informa- 
tion gaps, duplicative efforts, and low-level account- 
ability seem to characterize the Federal effort in 
ocean pollution research and monitoring. 
Environmental “research” is distinguished from 
environmental “monitoring.” The gray area between 
the two, however, is broad indeed. The objective of 
monitoring is to trace, gage, measure, or observe 
phenomena over time. The detail and kind of in- 
formation sought determines the monitoring tech- 
niques and design to be used, e.g., remote sensing 
to track oils spills or sophisticated bioassays to 
trace a heavy metal through the food web. Research, 
on the other hand, is based on experimentation and 
investigation and is generally intended to gain knowl- 
edge about a process, form, fate, or effect of an agent 
in the environment. 
Information from carefully designed and well- 
* Ibid. 
executed monitoring programs can provide a basis 
for managing those materials that are capable of ad- 
versely affecting the marine environment. Monitor- 
ing is necessary for an effective regulatory program.*® 
“Baseline studies” are a special form of monitoring 
that is conducted prior to an anticipated project to 
provide information on the natural, “unperturbed” 
environment. Baseline information provides a means 
to measure and compare the resulting impacts 
through a continuous monitoring program. 
Monitoring by the Federal agencies is generally 
done on a specific site for a specific purpose, yet 
time-series data on processes and pathways can be 
used as an indicator of potential problems that may 
appear in other sites. A national air and water moni- 
toring system has been established as a result of the 
air and water pollution control legislation that has 
developed since the 1960s. A comparable system 
does not yet exist in the case of the marine environ- 
ment. Large-scale monitoring is extremely costly, 
and there are practical limitations on the extent to 
which the ocean can be effectively monitored. There- 
fore, it is imperative that the Federal agencies with 
monitoring programs coordinate their activities and 
share facilities and information. 
The international community is slowly recognizing 
the need for a global program of monitoring selected 
143E, D. Goldberg. The Health of the Oceans. New York: 
UNESCO Press, 1976, p. 172. 
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