Federal assistance to State maritime academies 
began in 1874, initially in the form of Federally 
supplied ships. 
The idea of limited Federal assistance to voca- 
tional education was incorporated in the Smith-Lever 
Act of 1914 and subsequent acts leading up to to- 
day’s Vocational Education Act of 1963, as amended 
in 1967 and 1976. 
While most of the themes of Federal involvement 
in education were in place by the early years ot 
the 20th century, it was the First and Second World 
Wars that modified and extended these ideas and 
led directly to today’s Federal programs. 
Maritime officer education was the first area af- 
fected. The importance of a strong merchant marine 
to national defense had long been a major theme 
of American policy.’ and the shortage of trained 
merchant marine officers during and after World 
War I was considered serious. The result was a 1938 
decision to extend the service academy concept and 
create a national merchant marine academy at Kings 
Point, N.Y. Later, in 1958, the Federal role was 
expanded still further with the decision to provide 
financial assistance te State maritime academies. 
Then during World War II the theme of general 
aid to higher education was expanded dramatically. 
Rapid changes in military technology and the in- 
creasing importance of scientific research on weap- 
onry made military research an important part of 
the national defense effort. The Nation’s civilian 
universities became a major focus for this research, 
as well as the main training grounds for the scientists 
and engineers who performed such work. Large 
amounts of Federal money began going to universi- 
ties, though as before, the Federal Government’s 
role was one of financial assistance, not direct opera- 
tion of the schools. Marine education, like other 
fields, became highly science. oriented, with a heavy 
orientation toward research for military applications. 
Today Federal funding of research—and the research 
assistantships which help support and train many 
graduate students—is a central feature of American 
higher education. 
In the 1950s and 1960s new programs were added 
as the Federal Government took on further respon- 
sibilities. The creation of the National Science Foun- 
dation (NSF) in 1950 reflected a new emphasis on 
basic research and the training of researchers, both 
seen as important not only to military innovation, 
but also to the general advancement of knowledge 
and economic growth. Today NSF is the Nation’s 
largest single source of funding for basic oceano- 
graphic research and associated graduate student 
education. Then in the 1960s, the space program and 
health research programs reflected a new emphasis 
on the value of mission-oriented civilian research. 
Enacted in 1966, the National Sea Grant College 
and Program Act established a similar system of 
support for applied research and education in ocean 
fields, based on what the Morrill Act did for agri- 
cluture. (See chapter VII, Marine Science and Tech- 
nology.) 
By the late 1950s, NSF had expanded its pro- 
grams to improve science education to the elemen- 
tary and secondary levels, starting a precedent for 
Federal assistance in improving precollege curricu- 
lum and teaching. Today, the Sea Grant Program 
and others engage in similar activities to improve 
precollege marine education. 
Finally, the marine area has been affected by the 
new theme of public participation in Government 
decisionmaking, a theme which has grown to 
prominence largely as a result of the environmental 
movement. Ocean agency programs have gone be- 
yond providing information to seeking new ways to 
involve the public in policy formulation. 
Organization of the Chapter 
The following sections will examine these Federal 
marine and maritime policies for education and em- 
ployment. U.S. policy on these subjects is divided 
into four broad categories of Government activity: 
(1) Federal policies toward higher education and 
the training of marine professionals; 
(2) maritime officer education; 
(3) marine and maritime vocational training; and 
7 See chapter V, Marine Transportation. 
(4) Federal activities for educating the public, in- 
cluding precollege marine education as well 
as public information and public participation 
programs. : 
Each section includes a consideration of the back- 
ground and major justifications for Government 
involvement, an assessment of current policy, and 
a description of the present policymaking system. 
In addition, a brief discussion of some of the major 
contemporary policy issues in each area is included. 
VIII—6 
