policy in general and marine education in particular. 
The general effects can be seen in the new legislation 
on environmental protection and resource manage- 
ment passed during this decade, including the Coastal 
Zone Management Act of 1972 and the Fishery 
Conservation and Management Act of 1976. 
A parallel result is an emphasis on research and 
education in “marine affairs.” This takes two forms. 
One is the training of marine lawyers, economists, 
analysts, planners, and managers who can handle the 
new tasks of environmental protection and manage- 
ment of marine and coastal resources. The other is to 
train marine scientists and engineers so they can 
deal with these new problems which involve policy 
considerations as well as scientific factors. 
The emphasis on training in marine affairs is re- 
flected in the Sea Grant legislation. For instance, the 
Senate Committee report on the 1976 revision of the 
Sea Grant Act called for the program to help “equip 
the United States for leadership in the oceans.” 2° 
Present Marine Education System 
Today, some 160 colleges and universities have 
programs in marine science, ocean engineering, and 
related fields. 
While it is difficult to get precise enrollment and 
budget statistics, it is clear that there is now a sub- 
stantial U.S. network of marine education programs. 
It is estimated that the number of students enrolled 
at any given time in marine graduate programs has 
been over 1,000 for the past two decades.?° 
The marine educational network trains not only | 
American professionals, but also significant numbers 
of students from abroad, making the United States 
a leader in world marine education. Twelve schools 
are now designated as Sea Grant Colleges. While this 
title is largely honorary and carries no guarantee of 
continued funding by NOAA’s Office of Sea Grant, 
it does indicate that the Nation now has a series of 
established marine research and education centers. 
In addition to the marine education programs, the 
marine field also draws upon scientists and engineers 
trained in the traditional disciplines of biology, engi- 
neering, geology, etc. This “transferability” of pro- 
fessionals between the marine and nonmarine fields 
has important implications. One is that the marine 
personnel system has considerable flexibility. People 
can move in and out of the field relatively easily 
during times of either high marine unemployment or 
shortages of marine personnel. 
Two other factors add to the flexibility of the sys- 
tem. Within certain limits, universities and colleges 
have the ability to contract, expand, or modify their 
enrollments as the job potential—and student inter- 
est—in a given field rises or falls. Also, if there is 
DOES Congress, Senate, "Sea Grant Improvement Act of 1976, 
S. Report 94-848 to accompany S. 3165, 94th Congress, 2d 
session, 1976, p. 4. 
U.S. Interagency Committee on Marine Science and Engi- 
neering, Federal Council for Science and Technology. University 
Curricula in the Marine Sciences and Related Fields: Academic 
Years 1975-1976, 1976-1977. 
Dale F. Leipper. “Ocean Education: Where Now?” in Ma- 
rine Technology Society and Institute of Electrical and Electronic 
Engineers, Oceans ’77 Conference Report 1: 22D-2. 
1 National Academy of Sciences—National Research Council, 
Panel on Ocean Science Manpower Data. Ocean Science Man- 
power Data and Their Interpretation. Washington, D.C., 1971, 
pp. 3-6. 
a sudden rise in the demand for civilian marine per- 
sonnel, defense contractors and their skilled marine 
professionals can be called upon. 
The result is that the marine personnel system has 
strengths that help it keep the supply of professionals 
balanced with demand. Some observers, noting this, 
have concluded that the present educational system 
will be sufficient to meet the needs of any major new 
ocean efforts. For instance, the Stratton Commission 
said this in 1969 when discussing manpower needs 
for its proposed national ocean program: °° 
“The Commission appreciates that its pro- 
posed national effort will require large 
numbers of well-educated, well-trained 
people. The majority view among those 
whom the Commission has consulted on 
manpower problems is that an exciting, 
broad-scale marine program will generate 
its own personnel. The personnel will come 
principally through transfer from land- 
based scientific, engineering, and technical 
specialties, but also through increased en- 
rollments in marine education and training 
programs. 
“The Commission does not | imply that sup- 
ing i is cere ary oe that it may be un- 
wise to tailor large new education and 
training programs to our present limited 
perception of future needs. Certainly some 
programs to extend the national capability 
for production of manpower are required, 
and such capability should be expanded or 
created. But, until it is possible to develop 
a better conception of future manpower 
needs, care must be taken not to overpro- 
duce manpower, particularly in fields in 
which transfer from land to sea activities 
is relatively simple.” 
Report of the Commission on Marine Science, Engineering, 
and Resources to the President of the United States and the U.S. 
Congress, by Julius A. Stratton, Chairman. Our Nation and The 
Sea—A Plan for National Action. Washington, D.C., Government 
Printing Office, 1969, p. 44. 
VIII-9 
