of students who will be subsidized each year. At the 
same time, the report seems to note implicitly that 
this is an imperfect lever of control at best, and that 
mediation and discussions among the involved parties 
are equally important. Legislative proposals based on 
this and other recommendations were introduced, but 
were not acted upon by the 94th Congress. These 
issues now are being examined by a new House Ad 
Hoc Select Subcommittee created in the 95th Con- 
gress. 
Today the underlying issues remain unresolved: 
the question of who should train maritime officers, 
and the associated question of whether MarAd or 
perhaps others should be given a larger role in en- 
suring that the supply of officers trained by the 
. 
academies and the unions is balanced with demand. 
But for the moment, the debate had died down. 
Today there appears to be enough sea-going em- 
ployment for all who want it, largely because of 
increasing retirements among merchant marine of- 
ficers. One result of this improved job situation is 
that MEBA now has rewritten its shipping rules to 
allow new academy graduates into the union on a 
more equal footing with graduates of the union’s 
school. Whether this present demand for officers con- 
tinues depends on many things, including future 
Federal policies regarding cargo preference, shipping 
subsidies, and manning and safety requirements. Yet 
in any case, the issues of how to train officers and 
in what numbers are likely to remain. 
Licensing and Retraining 
In recent years ships around the world have been 
sinking at an alarming rate, an average of about one 
a day. In the judgment of a National Research Coun- 
cil (NRC) study of the problem, human error is 
often a contributing if not fundamental factor in these 
sinkings and other maritime accidents. The NRC 
study concluded:°° 
“Marine casualties and their effects, includ- 
ing loss of life as well as ecological and 
cost considerations, are far more serious 
than is realized; this is especially disturbing 
since at least 80 percent of casualties are 
related to human error.” 
The NRC work on this question of human error 
has helped to make it a significant maritime per- 
sonnel policy issue. It is also a controversial one. In 
1975 hearings before the House, the maritime unions 
disagreed among themselves about this subject, espe- 
cially the idea of requiring periodic physical exami- 
nations for U.S. maritime officers. The representative 
of the International Organization of Masters, Mates, 
and Pilots (MM&P) had no objection to a require- 
ment for physical examinations, but two other unions 
felt otherwise. Jesse Calhoon of the Marine Engineers 
stated that MEBA members already undergo a bi- 
ennial physical examination and was against Govern- 
ment examinations. He also opposed another idea, 
that of reexamination to ensure that basic skills have 
been maintained. The radiomen and radio officers’ 
unions, which also opposed requirements for physical 
examinations and reexamination of skills, were clearly 
worried about the impact these might have on jobs.** 
Others question whether the available data fully sup- 
Panel on Human Error in Merchant Marine Safety, Mari- 
time Transportation Research Board. Human Error in Merchant 
Marine Safety. Washington, D.C., National Research Council, 
June 1976, p. v. 
* U.S. Congress. House, Committee on Merchant Marine and 
Fisheries, op. cit. note 44, pp. 125, 160-161, and 176. 
port the panel’s contention that certain steps, such as 
additional physicals, actually will improve ship safety. 
While the education, licensing, and qualification of 
merchant mariners are an international problem, 
any discussion of U.S. Merchant Mariner qualifica- 
tions and documents usually starts with the require- 
ments of the U.S. Coast Guard. To qualify for an 
original license as a Merchant Marine officer for 
service on U.S. flag merchant vessels, an applicant 
must present qualifying sea service or be a graduate 
of a Coast Guard-approved licensing program, and 
must pass a physical and professional examination. 
In addition, these licenses must be renewed every 5 
years. Upon renewal a deck officer must show re- 
cency of service under the authority of his license 
within the preceding 3 years, complete an open book 
exercise on rules of the road and pollution abatement, 
pass a color sense test, and take a written examina- 
tion for “radar observer.” To renew his license, an 
engineering officer must complete an open book 
exercise on pollution abatement. 
To sail in an unlicensed capacity aboard a U.S. 
flag merchant vessel of over 100 gross tons, all sea- 
men must obtain a U.S. merchant mariner’s document 
issued by the Coast Guard. Applicants for the “entry 
ratings” or ordinary seaman, wiper, and member of 
the steward’s department must present a letter of 
commitment of employment for service on U.S. flag 
merchant vessels to be eligible for a merchant ma- 
riner’s document. Applicants for “qualified ratings” 
such as able seaman and qualified member of the 
engine department must present qualifying sea service 
or complete a: Coast Guard approved course of in- 
struction, and pass a physical and professional 
examination. 
Retraining for officers and seamen is available now 
through MarAd’s training centers and a series of 
union schools. For instance, MM&P operates a highly 
regarded Maritime Institute of Technology and 
Graduate Study near Baltimore, Md 
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