cess to information and structuring decision-making 
processes so that citizens actually can affect deci- 
sions. The latter is a matter of organization. But the 
emphasis on more information has led to major 
changes in the way agency public information pro- 
grams operate. The Freedom of Information Act has 
required agencies, including ocean agencies, to be 
more open. The environmental impact statements 
required under the National Environmental Policy 
Act of 1969 in effect require agencies to inform, 
before decisions are made, what the proposed action 
is, what impacts it is likely to have, and what the al- 
ternatives are. More recently, some agencies, such 
as the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, have pro- 
vided technical assistance to citizens “intervening” in 
adjudicatory hearings. There is now a debate over 
whether agencies such as NOAA also should provide 
financial assistance to such “‘Interveners” in order to 
enable them not only to participate in proceedings, 
but also afford access to researchers and experts who 
can provide them with information. 
Programs and Recent Developments 
Nearly all Federal agencies operate information 
offices. The public information role is recognized 
as a legitimate function of the agencies. There is a 
risk, however, that well-intentioned agency informa- 
tion programs can be used as promotional tools to 
advance the parochial interests of the agency. This 
accusation was made by several groups who watched 
the Energy Research and Development Administra- 
tion’s activities during the 1976 nuclear power refer- 
endum campaign in California. 
Whether enough effort is being expended to make 
marine programs “visible” has been questioned from 
time to time. The lack of an “ocean constituency,” 
that is, a public understanding of the importance of 
the ocean and its role in the economic, social, and 
strategic future of the Nation, has been cited as a 
problem which makes it difficult to seek support for 
ocean initiatives.” 
Much of the impetus for more precollege marine 
education comes from these same concerns. What 
is not entirely clear, however, is whether lack of 
public attention to ocean matters is real, and if so, 
whether it is the result of insufficient Government 
effort, or a feeling among the public that ocean 
matters really are small in the grand scheme of 
national issues, or both. 
At the same time, though, general public interest 
in the oceans has increased in recent years, as evi- 
denced, for example, by the popularity of the Jacques 
Cousteau television specials, the National Geograpnic 
Society series, and by the amount of press coverage 
given to such ocean matters as the tanker accidents 
of the winter of 1977. Also, several recent innovative 
attempts have aimed to make the public more aware 
of the oceans and of Government programs. Two 
examples may give a flavor of these efforts. 
One was the “oceans course by newspaper” effort 
of 1977, Entitled “Oceans: Our Continuing Fron- 
tier,” this series of articles was carried by some 350 
newspapers, and about 200 colleges and universities 
offered “Oceans” as credit and noncredit courses in 
conjunction with the newspaper series. The series 
covered literature and art as well as science and 
policy. It was produced by the University Extension, 
University of California at San Diego, with funding 
from the National Endowment for the Humanities.” 
Second, NOAA’s Office of Coastal Zone Manage- 
ment has_a “coastal awareness program.” It differs 
from traditional public information programs, be- 
cause it not only distributes its materials, but also 
contracts with various groups to have them prepare 
information packages. To date, the League of 
Women Voters, the Natural Resources Defense 
Council, and several industry groups have been 
involved. 
The Office of Coastal Zone Management also con- 
tains some of the newer programs oriented toward 
facilitating public participation. The Coastal Zone 
Management Act requires that States involve the 
public when developing their coastal zone plans, and 
the Federal office advises the States about developing 
both the information and organizational sides of 
their public participation programs. The Office also 
advises the general public about how to participate in 
coastal zone programs; this information is presented 
as part of the “coastal awareness program.” Also, 
the Oceans Program of the Congressional Office of 
Technology Assessment has developed new ways to 
inform the public about policy issues and choices; 
OTA has a public participation project that carries 
on these activities. 
Major Current Issues 
In the future, several issues are likely to dominate 
discussions about general marine education and pub- 
lic information programs. In turn, resolution of these 
1U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Commerce, Sci- 
ence and Transportation. Nomination—Administratcr, National 
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Hearing before the 
Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation, 95th Con- 
gress, Ist session, July 12, 1977, p. 91. 
issues could affect significantly not only the Federal 
role in these areas but how much the public under- 
stands and supports ocean programs. 
*2 George A. Colburn. “ ‘Oceans: Our Continuing Frontier,’ A 
National Qceanic Educational Program Prepared by Courses by 
Newspaper,” in Marine Technology Society and Institute of 
Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Oceans 77 Conference Re- 
port 1: 11A-1 to 11A-3. 
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