water soil mechanics, foundations, site prepara- 
tion, and underwater construction equipment. 
Commercial mining ventures might be consid- 
ered forerunners of in-bottom facilities. Undersea 
mines have been in operation off the coast of 
England for over 350 years. Tunnels have been 
built under the continental shelves; however, 
tunnels have never originated under water. Such 
operations might be required for seamount labora- 
tories or links between bottom-sitting stations. 
Precise underwater surveying and positioning, un- 
derwater grouting and boring, and heavy equip- 
ment technology are all in their infancy in relation 
to undersea construction. 
Recommendations: 
Underwater working operations will require coor- 
dinated development in many basic engineering 
and component areas. Data are needed on the 
interaction of waves and currents with an installa- 
tion. Adequate underwater power sources, equip- 
ment, and tools must be developed. Visual obser- 
vation, television, and viewing equipment will be 
required as well as command and communications 
systems. Improved materials will be required for 
reliable and long-life installations. 
Technology to support bottom occupancy 
should be undertaken. This includes construction 
work systems, underwater precision surveying, soil 
mechanics, foundation techniques, and submers- 
ible boring machines. Developing systems for 
underwater construction without surface support 
could be economically rewarding. 
An isolated station emplaced on a seamount 
should receive high priority. Within 20 years 
laboratories should be established in waters as 
deep as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, and before the end 
of the century an ocean bottom station at 20,000 
feet should be built. 
C. Safety, Search and Rescue, and Salvage 
To support undersea activities, it will be neces- 
sary constantly to examine technological progress 
and prepare for potential hazards. Loss of life in 
undersea operations would be not only tragic but 
could be detrimental to the national effort. 
Natural hazards include uncharted obstacles, 
mudslides, sudden strong shifts of subsurface 
currents, marine organisms, tsunamis, and such 
long-term effects as corrosion and fouling. 
Sudden storms and fog affect surface support. 
Other hazards include accidental explosions, espe- 
cially in areas containing undetonated mines or 
torpedoes, and operator error resulting from physi- 
cal or mental ill health. 
Deliberate enemy attack could involve forces 
ranging from conventional depth charges to nu- 
clear explosives. Research is needed to determine 
characteristics of explosions and other hazards at 
great depth. Anticipation of hazards is necessary 
to design, fabrication, installation, certification, 
and qualification of undersea systems and their 
crews. 
Several hazards directly associated with under- 
sea systems—structural failure, power loss, and 
fire—perhaps are to be most guarded against. Such 
dangers should be anticipated and minimized. 
1. Safety and Certification 
a. Current Situation Orderly progress into the 
undersea frontier demands that safety engineering 
start during the design process, rather than 
holding safety reviews of completed plans and 
actions. Certification of manned vehicles, sea 
elevators, deep diving equipment, and undersea 
habitats should be the responsibility of a qualified 
group. 
Comparative safety of undersea systems is an 
important factor in determining marine insurance 
rates, a substantial addition to the cost of undersea 
operations. System safety and certification are 
equally important to assure that an item is safely 
designed, well built, and adequately tested. Certifi- 
cation is a continuing process that includes con- 
cern for safe operation, maintenance, and over- 
haul. 
It is important that fire, one of the worst 
hazards, be extinguished rapidly. Fire control 
systems use multipurpose powders, gases, foams, 
or water delivered by portable extinguishers, fixed 
pipelines, or manned hoses. Such new agents as 
high expansion foam have been tested and have 
possible undersea application. The National Aero- 
nautics and Space Administration, with a similar 
closed environment problem, has developed infor- 
mation on fire fighting and fire prevention tech- 
niques that may be applicable. 
Whatever the technique, it must work fast; total 
combustion of one pound of cellulose-like material 
in a short period generates smoke, toxic gases, and 
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