technologic, economic, and political forces opera- 
ting on a worldwide scale, as well as of interests 
and policies within U.S. Government control. 
These forces affect not only U.S. shipping interests 
but shipbuilding interests as well. And, finally, 
programs for offshore harbor development have 
important interrelation with such Federal and 
State activities as urban renewal, trade promotion, 
and transportation development. 
Revolutionary changes in merchant ship config- 
uration and integration of ships into multi-mode 
transport systems for point-to-point cargo delivery 
will have great influence on developing uses of the 
oceans. As maritime transportation progress leads 
to larger, deeper-draft ships and containerization 
techniques, today’s ports will be unable to handle 
these ships. Programs for progressively deepening 
these ports now are encountering severe physical 
obstacles, costly dislocations and ecological dis- 
turbances created by channel dredging. 
1. Current Situation 
a. Shipping and Ports Data on past and present 
volume of waterborne trade by U.S. and foreign 
flag vessels, compiled by the Bureau of Census, 
reveal that export and import waterborne trade is 
increasing. During 1950, ocean shipments totalled 
159,389,000 short tons of which 39.3 per cent 
was carried by U.S. flag vessels. Total tonnage 
increased to some 405,205,000 short tons by 
1964; however, only 9.9 per cent was carried by 
U.S. flag ships. Tanker cargo carried by U.S. flag 
vessels dropped from 53 per cent in 1950 to only 
5.9 per cent in 1964. This drastic shift from U.S. 
flag vessels to foreign vessels is a function of 
myriad factors including shipbuilding costs, wages, 
age of ships, and automation. 
The Atlantic coastal region in 1966 accounted 
for the major share of imports, whereas the 
combination of Atlantic and Gulf Coast ports 
accounted for most of the Nation’s exports. Cargo 
tonnage by all vessels for coastal distribution has 
remained approximately constant for the last 10 
years. During 1964 the principal oceanborne 
import commodities were crude petroleum, resid- 
ual fuel oil, gas, iron ore, and aluminum ore. The 
major export commodities were bituminous coal 
and wheat. 
Many U.S. major ports have a disparity between 
the amount of cargo imported and exported. New 
VI-116 
York is a major port for imports; however, 
Norfolk, Virginia, is the major port for export on 
the Atlantic. New Orleans is the major Gulf port 
for export. Import and export trade of the Gulf 
Coast is distributed primarily among the Louisiana 
and Texas ports. Similarly, import and export 
trade on the Pacific Coast is distributed among the 
California and Washington ports. The competition 
between these adjacent ports is illustrated by the 
fact that Long Beach harbor handled 7,582,000 
short tons with only 1,447 receipts, whereas the 
adjacent Los Angeles harbor handled 10,379,000 
tons, with more than 4,000 receipts. 
It is obvious that Long Beach harbor is 
shipping a larger percentage of bulk cargo requir- 
ing less handling and shorter turn-around times. 
All factors relating to packaging, equipment, and 
personnel must be considered in any evaluation of 
the influence on trade in U.S. ports. 
Competition between ports exists where more 
than one port is in an area. This competition is 
generally a stimulus to efficient port operation. It 
requires that users and potential users be con- 
vinced constantly of the economy and efficiency 
of a port. 
The erection of modern physical facilities to 
improve efficiency is only the beginning. Total 
cost is the dominant consideration in routing 
freight. Inland transportation, port charges, and 
water transportation costs combined must equal or 
better that of a competitive routing. 
Technological advances, especially automation 
and handling, are penetrating the ocean shipping 
business rapidly. The port authorities must create 
new port facilities as they are needed—deep water 
terminals, offshore terminals, and automated han- 
dling equipment for new large bulk cargo carriers. 
Most other maritime nations are doing more 
than the United States to keep pace with tech- 
nological change. Gigantic superports are being 
planned in Ireland, France, and Japan; expansion 
is under way in Italy, Belgium, and Holland. 
During the next few years as utilization of 
oceans changes, many problems must be solved; 
actual construction of the hardware may be the 
simplest. Expediting paperwork, removing customs 
bottlenecks, coordinating land and water trans- 
port, developing simplified pricing systems, in- 
creasing safety, and dislocation of ports and labor 
will be most difficult. Port and harbor problems 
will be solved only through systems analysis, 
