SHIPBUILDING INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES. 209 
and may be repeated at intervals in groups as many as fifteen or twenty times, with only 
minor and detail changes. The work is thus spread over a period of years, so that the ad- 
vantages due to repetition work in the shops do not enter into the consideration. The main 
advantage is in time, because the design, plans, material-orders and specifications are im- 
mediately available. 
Oil and cargo ships come in the repeat-order category rather than passenger ships. The 
Shipping Board 535-foot passenger ships were an example of a large number of ships laid 
down to the same original plans as troopships, but finished up in groups for several lines and 
services as passenger ships. The hulls were practically identical, but even here changes were 
made to get different oil-fuel capacities; the machinery was built in groups to spread the work 
to different boiler, turbine and gear plants, so there was only partial standardization in ma- 
chinery. The passenger accommodations were most wide of “sameness.” While it is mis- 
leading to say that no two ships were alike, itis fair to say that with sameness of outline 
plans we have very considerable differences in detailed arrangements and decorative schemes, 
so that these differences finally resulted in a fleet wherein there were greater or lesser differ- 
ences in every ship. Arguing from this and from general experience, standardization of pas- 
senger ships may be dismissed from serious consideration, except in quite small groups. Ship- 
building, in the nature of things, does not lend itself to standardization as a whole, but to 
build large ships in groups of limited numbers, suitable to particular trades, is a practice as old 
and older than anyone living today. 
There is a large field where more has been accomplished than meets the eye on first 
approaching the subject, namely, international agreements on such matters as rules for avoid- 
ing collisions; signal codes; tonnage laws; lifeboats, and subdivision of passenger ships. 
Working agreements between classification societies in different countries tend toward broad- 
gauge standardization. Standard load-line regulations are well on the way to international 
scope. Agreement to recognize each other’s inspection certificates covering passenger and 
crew accommodations between countries having substantially the same regulations is another 
step towards the common goal. 
The tendency towards international codes covering the fundamentals of shipping both as 
to building and to operating is right and proper, particularly when it is remembered that the 
high seas are world wide and provide highways common to all nations. The sea does not 
ask if a ship be American or French, but treats them all alike; hence the growing volume 
of international standardization of fundamentals is to be welcomed and helped as a means 
of getting along better with international intercourse and trade. 
STANDARDIZATION OF MATERIALS. 
Turning to the standardization of parts entering into ship construction, we find much 
to study. We also find great progress to record. We even find some progress towards 
international standardization, though this phase of the problem has naturally not progressed 
nearly as far as international covenants covering broad principles. 
Consider the steel of which ships are nowadays constructed. Wood, iron and concrete 
need not be considered here, because merchant shipping today is, to all practical intents and 
purposes, universally constructed of steel. 
International specifications for ship steel have not yet arrived in spite of efforts which 
were under way when the war broke; the difficulties are great, and they begin in the mines 
