66 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 40 



used does not prove inability to form them, but it merely proves 

 that the mode of life of the people is such that they are not required; 

 that they would, however, develop just as soon as needed. 



This point of view is also corroborated by a study of the numeral 

 systems of primitive languages. As is well known, many languages 

 exist in which the numerals do not exceed two or three. It has 

 been inferred from this that the people speaking these languages 

 are not capable of forming the concept of higher numbers. I think 

 this interpretation of the existing conditions is quite erroneous. Peo- 

 ple like the South American Indians (among whom these defective 

 numeral systems are found) , or like the Eskimo (whose old system of 

 numbers probably did not exceed ten), are presumably not in need of 

 higher numerical expressions, because there are not many objects 

 that they have to count. On the other hand, just as soon as these 

 same people find themselves in contact with civilization, and when 

 they acquire standards of value that have to be counted, they adopt 

 with perfect ease higher numerals from other languages and develop 

 a more or less perfect system of counting. This does not mean that 

 every individual who in the course of his life has never made use of 

 higher numerals would acquire more complex systems readily, but 

 the tribe as a whole seems always to be capable of adjusting itself to 

 the needs of counting. It must be borne in mind that counting does 

 not become necessary until objects are considered in such generalized 

 form that their individualities are entirely lost sight of. For this 

 reason it is possible that even a person who has a flock of domesti- 

 cated animals may know them by name and by their characteristics 

 without ever desiring to count them. Members of a war expedition 

 may be known by name and may not be counted. In short, there 

 is no proof that the lack of the use of numerals is in any way con- 

 nected with the inability to form the concepts of higher numbers. 



If we want to form a correct judgment of the influence that lan- 

 guage exerts over thought, we ought to bear in mind that our Euro- 

 pean languages as found at the present time have been moulded to a 

 great extent by the abstract thought of philosophers. Terms like 

 esserice and existence, many of which are now commonly used, are 

 by origin artificial devices for expressing the results of abstract 

 thought. In this they would resemble the artificial, Imidiomatic 

 abstract terms that may be formed in primitive languages. 



