BOAS] HANDBOOK OF AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES 101 



spending affricat^ve, is. The latter occurs in the forms expressing 

 definite action. jlC is evident that c and tc formerly had a similar rela- 

 tion, but the former has since become w. Finally there are a number 

 of roots which lose a final /. The past definite, customar}^, and nega- 

 tive future have the form with t; and the present of both definite 

 and indefinite action and the imperative do not have it. 



Changes in the Character and Length of the Vowel, — Certain 

 vowel-changes occur in connection with the change of terminal conso- 

 nants, and are perhaps tied up with them. These are a change of a to 

 ii, and of e to /. The stronger vowels, a and e, occur with n; and u 

 and /, the weaker ones, with n. The threefold consonant-change, /, i, 

 and Z, has e before Z, and l before I and l. Other changes take place in 

 cases where there are now no final consonants. These are u to <% au to 

 a, and ai to a.^ In all the pairs given above, the first-named is consid- 

 erably longer in its duration than is the second. Probably these 

 changes, the direction of which is not known, came about b}^ a change 

 in the position or force of the accent, whether of stress or pitch. 



§ 8. Position 



Upon the order of the words in the sentence often depends their 

 relation to each other. This is especially true of the subject and 

 object when expressed as nouns. The first in order is the subject, 

 and the second the object. Both of them may precede the verb. 

 Possession and other relations are expressed by sj^ntactical particles, 

 which are joined to the limited word, and fix its place in the sentence 

 after the word which limits it. 



IDEAS EXPRESSED BY GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES 



(§§ 9-19) 



§ 9. Enumeration of Categories 



The following ideas have grammatical devices for their expression 

 in Hupa: 



(1) Denominating concepts. (H) Distribution. 



(2) Predicating concepts. (7) Time. 



(3) Syntactic relations. (8) Mode. 



(4) Classification. (9) Place and direction. 



(5) Number. (10) Person. 



1 The pnirs u, e, and au, a, are represented in Kato and other Eel river dialects by «/, e', and ag, a'. 



§§8,9 



