BOAS] HANDBOOK OF AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES 105 



presence of this syllable, together with a certain form of the root, 

 constitutes a customary tense or mode. 



By the use of na- an iterative force is given to the verb, express- 

 ing the fact that the act is done a second time or that it is undone. 



§ 16. Time 



Time is expressed by means of suffixes, a change of root, inde- 

 pendent adverbs, and temporal clauses. For past time -neen may be 

 suffixed to a noun or verb. A house in ruins is called xontaneen 

 HOUSE USED TO BE. Habitual acts which have ceased are expressed 

 by the same suffix, as auwtinneen 1 used to do it. A single definite 

 act completed in time already past is differentiated from such acts 

 in present time by a change in the form and length of the root, and 

 a change of the accent: for example, 



tcinni'nya he has just arrived 

 tcinninyai' he arrived some time ago 



The future is expressed by the suffixes -te and -teh. The former 

 seems to be employed of the more remote future. These are gen- 

 erally employed only with verbs, but are sometimes found with nouns 

 and adverbs: for example, halyate here will be the plage. 



§ 17. Mode 



Closely connected with the time of the act is the degree of cer- 

 tainty with which it is asserted. For past acts, suffixes which indi- 

 cate the source of the authority for the statement are often employed. 

 That which is perceived by the sense of hearing has -tsu or -tse' 

 suffixed; the former for the past, and the latter for the present. 

 When the transaction is in sight, -e is suffixed. Things which are 

 conjectured from circumstantial evidence, as the building of a fire 

 from the remains of one, have -xolan added to the verb: 



Leyanillai they built a fire 



Leyanillaxolan they must have built a fire [here are the ashes] 



Future acts which are contingent on human will or outward cir- 

 cumstance are rendered by the suffix -de^. When the future is 

 expressed with an absolute negative force, the impossibility of its 

 being brought to pass being implied, a special form of the verb *vith 

 an auxiliary verb prefixed is used. 



§§ 16, 17 



