BOAS] HANDBOOK OF AMERICAN INDIAN LANGUAGES 573 



tactic words may be divided into three classes that receive different 

 treatment — transitive verbs, intransitive verbs, and nouns. All of 

 these have in common that they must contain pronominal elements, 

 which in the first class are subjective and objective, while in the 

 other two classes they are objective (from the Indo-European point 

 of view, subjective). The noun is therefore closely associated with 

 the intransitive verb, although it is not identical with it. It retains, 

 to a certain extent, a predicative character, but is in form partly 

 differentiated from the intransitive verb. 



The differentiation of transitive and intransitive is contained in 

 the pronominal elements. The subject of the transitive differs in 

 some cases from that of the intransitive, which is in form identical 

 with the objective form of the transitive. 



The relations of nouns are expressed by possessive pronouns, which 

 seem to be remotely related to the subjective transitive pronouns. 

 Owing to the predicative character of the noun, the possessive form 

 has partly the meaning having. 



Both intransitive and transitive verbs may contain indirect pro- 

 nominal objects. These are expressed by objective pronouns. Their 

 particular relation to the verb is defined by elements indicating the 

 ideas of for, to, with, etc. The possessive relations of subject and 

 object — i. e., the possession of one of the objects by the subject, or 

 of the indirect object by the direct object, and vice versa — are also 

 expressed. 



All the syntactic relations between the verb and the nouns of the 

 sentence must be expressed by means of pronominal and adverbial 

 elements incorporated in the verb, so that the verb is the skeleton of 

 the sentence, while the nouns or noun-groups held together by 

 possessive pronouns are mere appositions. Certain locative affixes 

 which express the syntactic relations of nouns occur in the dialect 

 of the Cascades; but these seem to have been borrowed from the 

 Sahaptin. 



The function of each pronominal element is clearly defined, partly 

 by the differentiation of forms in the transitive and intransitive 

 verbs, partly by the order in which they appear and by the adverbial 

 elements mentioned before. 



In the pronoun, singular, dual, and plural are distinguished. 

 There is an inclusive and an exclusive in dual and plural, the exclu- 

 sive being related to the first person. The second persons dual and 



§15 



