522 A STUDY OF SIOUAN CULTS. 



instance of sacrifice recorded iu this, paper lias tlie autlior detected any 

 notion of expiation for sin against a jnst and holy Being. But sacrifice, 

 whether in the form of fasting, self-torture, or the offering of property, 

 was made in order to win the favor of a god, to obtain a temporal 

 advantage (§§ 28, 29, 101, 114, etc.), or to avert the anger of demons, as 

 when the people were suffering from famine or an ex)idemic (§ 144). 



V. Shamanism. — While there have been shamans and various orders 

 of shamans among tliese tribes, no trace of a worship of shamans as 

 gods has yet been found. On one occasion the author met a Ponka 

 shaman. Cramped Hand, who exclaimed, " I am a wakanda. " But no 

 other Ponka ever said that he or she worshij)ed Cramped Hand as a 

 wakanda. 



VI. The other beliefs named by Dr. Peet have been found, in some 

 tribes, side by side. Animism, or a form of animism, was held by those 

 who worshiped the sun, animals, etc. "Everything had a soul" (§§97, 

 136,137,265-288,344, etc.). Certain animals were 'worshiped (§§ 24, 

 43, 78, 92, 326, etc.). The sun was invoked, not only in the Sundance 

 (§§ 139-212), but on other occasions (§§ 28, 43, 73, 312, 323). Stars, too, 

 were regarded as gods (§§ 31, 43). Elemental worship had a wider sig- 

 nificance among these tribes than Dr; Peet assigns it (§§ 27, 33-35, 43, 44, 

 74-77, 363, etc.). And there are traces of anthropomorphism, for some 

 of the gods are in human form (§§ 217, 235) ; others are supposed to 

 inhale the odor of tobacco smoke, which is pleasant to them; they eat, 

 breathe, use weapons against one another as well as against human 

 beings, and on one occasion an Indian was called on to aid one or the 

 other of two contending gods; they hear, think, marry, die, and are 

 succeeded by their children (§§ 25, 29, 35, 36, 72, 75, 94^ 109, 112, 117, 

 119, 136, 217, 322,etc.).i 



§ 362. The cults affected the social organization of the tribes that had 

 geutes bearing mystic names (see §§ 57 and 82 of this j)aper, and Om. 

 Soc., iu 3d An. Eept. Bur. Eth., Chap, iii, and pp. 356, 359-361) ; orders 

 of shamans and other secret societies were intimately associated with 

 them (§§ 43-45, 86, 87, and 89; and Om. Soc, pp. 342-355); personal 

 names still refer to them (§§ 31, 47, 53, 59, 74, 75, and 77; and Om. Soc, 

 pp. 228, 232,236, 238-244, 246-218, 250, and 251); and almost every act 

 of the daily life of the people was influenced by them (§§ 23, 24, 27, 28-30, 

 32, 33-36, 39-41, 54, 101, etc.; and Om. Soc, Chap, vi, and pp. 267, 274, 

 286, 287, 289-291, 293-299, 316, 319-325, 327, 328, 357, 368-370). 



CULTS OF THE ELEMENTS. 



§ 363. Prior to writing this paper, the author had observed what Dr. 

 Foster stated in his Indian Record and Historical Data respecting the 

 division of the Winnebago tribe into four groups, luimed after the 

 earth, air, tire, and water, respectively, i. e., Foster claimed that the 

 \N' i iinebago had people named after land animals, others after birds and 



1 See Am. Naturalist, July, 1885, pp. 673, 674, Tigs. 3 anil 4. 



