THE PLIOCENE OF EUROPE, ASIA, AND NORTH AMERICA 327 



catarrhine monkeys, of the grand divisions of the hollow-horned ruminants 

 or Cavicornia, and, if not the chief center, it was at least an extremely 

 important center of the evolution of the Proboscidea, because here we 

 find these animals in all stages of transition between the mastodon and 

 the elephant type. It remains to be discovered whether a similar fauna 

 and similar evolution characterized Africa at this time. 



Among tlie primates we find the orang (Simia), an ape now confined 

 to Borneo and Sumatra, also the chimpanzee (Anthropojnthecus) , another 

 ape now confined to Africa, the Siwalik species displaying a more human 

 type of dentition than that of the existing African form. Among the monkeys 

 are the macaques (Macacus) and langurs (Semnopithecus) , which we have 

 also seen in the ' ancient Pliocene ' fauna of Montpellier. There are also 

 true baboons (Cynocephalus) . 



The assemblage of Carnivora is the most extraordinary the world has 

 ever seen. There are first the ancient bear-like canids Amphicyon and 

 Hyoenarctos, related to Miocene types of Europe. The felids include 

 machserodonts (Machcerodus, Mlurogale, Mluropsis) , beside varieties of 

 true cats (Felis) analogous to the leopard and lynx, and including species 

 equaling the tigers in size. There are five species of hyaenas, including 

 primitive forms resembling the Upper Miocene Ictitherium of Pikermi, 

 while others of more modern aspect are similar to the spotted hysena {H. 

 crocuta), and still others to the striped hysena (H. striata). Among the 

 smaller carnivores are civets (Viverra), otters (Lutra), ratels (Melivora), 

 bears related to the Indian sloth bear {Melursus), foxes {Vulpes), and 

 wolves iCanis). 



Among the few rodents knoAvn are representatives of the bamboo rats 

 {Rhizomys) , porcupines (Hystrix), and the hares (Caprolagus). 



The variety of odd-toed ungulates is no less remarkable. Among 

 these perissodactyls are first to be noted the aberrant chalicotheres (fAncy- 

 lotherium), which also survive in the Pliocene and possibly into the early 

 Pleistocene of China. The tapirs (Tapirus) are rare, being recorded only 

 in the Upper Siwaliks of the Irawadi Valley. Of the rhinoceroses, the acera- 

 theres include a widely distributed species (A. hlanfordi), also found in 

 the Upper Miocene of Maragha in Persia, as well as a possible (Lydekker) 

 teleocerine rhinoceros (T. perimense). Related to the dicerorhine or 

 Sumatran phylum of rhinoceroses, which we have observed from the early 

 Miocene onward in Europe, is the majestic D. platyrhinus; while we find 

 also representatives of the true Asiatic rhinoceroses (R. palceindicus) , re- 

 lated to the existing one-horned types of India and Java and not represented 

 in Europe at all. 



Two species of Hipparion are known, and it appears certain that this 

 animal, which does not certainly extend beyond the Middle Pliocene of 

 Europe, survived into Upper Pliocene times in Asia; in Africa it is said 

 to have survived into the Lower Pleistocene. One species {H. antilopinum) 



