BULL. 30] 



GOVERNMENTAL POLICY 



499 



of the confederation. So there are family 

 councils, clan councils, gentile councils, 

 tribal councils, and confederation coun- 

 cils, respectively exercising sway in sepa- 

 rate and independent jurisdictions. 



In some regions nature is so niggard of 

 her bounties to man that savagery and 

 barbarism had not devised means to en- 

 able their sons to dwell there in organ- 

 ized political communities; hence here 

 may be found some of the lowest forms 

 of social organization, if such it may be 

 named. Kroeber says: "In general 

 rudeness of culture the California In- 

 dians are scarcely above the Eskimo; and 

 whereas the lack of development of the 

 Eskimo on many sides of their nature is 

 reasonably attributable in part to their 

 difficult and limiting environment, the 

 Indians of California inhabit a country 

 naturally as favorable, it would seem, as 

 might be. If the degree of civilization 

 attained by people depends in any large 

 measure on their habitat, as does not 

 seem likely, it might be concluded from 

 the case of the California Indians that 

 natural advantages were an impediment 

 rather than an incentive to progress" 

 (Univ. Cal. Publ., Am. Archaeol. and 

 Ethnol., n, no. 3, 81, 1904). This ques- 

 tion of the effect of environment on the 

 activities and development of peoples is 

 one still requiring much scientific study. 



Dixon (Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., xvii, 

 pt. 3, 1905), in treating of the northern 

 Maidu of California, describes a state of 

 society largely similar to that of the Hupa 

 as noted in general terms by Goddard. 

 Among the Maidu he finds no trace of 

 gentile or totemic grouping. Aside from 

 the village communities there was no 

 definite organization. Every village or 

 group of small villages had a headman or 

 chief (the office being in no case heredi- 

 tary), who was chosen largely through 

 the aid of the shaman, who was thought 

 to reveal to the electors the choice of the 

 spirits. Mature years and wealth, ability, 

 and generosity were strong recommenda- 

 tions in making a selection. Tenure of 

 office lasted only during good behavior. 

 The functions of the chief were largely 

 advisory, although force of character and 

 ability might in some cases secure a larger 

 measure of respect and obedience. There 

 also appears to have been "a rather inde- 

 terminate council, composed of the older 

 members of the Secret Society." 



Goddard (Univ. Cal. Publ., Am. Ar- 

 chffiol. and Ethnol., i, no. 1, 1903) says 

 there were no organization and no formal- 

 ities in the government of the village or 

 tribe among the Hupa. "Formal coun- 

 cils were unknown, although the chief 

 might, and often did, take the advice of 

 his men in a collected body." Each vil- 

 lage had a headman, whose wealth gave 



him the power of a chief and maintained 

 him in that power, and he was obeyed 

 because from him food was obtained in 

 times of scarcity. If trouble arose, he 

 settled the dispute with money. While 

 the people obeyed him, whatever he had 

 was at their service. "His power de- 

 scended to his son at his death, if his 

 property also so descended. On the 

 other hand, anyone who, by industry or 

 extraordinary abilities, had acquired more 

 property might obtain the dignity and 

 power." The family and the village 

 communities were the units of the social 

 organization. 



According to Powers (Overland Mo., 

 VIII, 530, 1872), among the Karok of Cal- 

 ifornia the chief exercises no authority 

 beyond his own village, wherein his 

 functions are chiefly advisory. He can 

 state the law or the custom and the facts, 

 and he may give his opinion, l)ut he can 

 hardly pronounce and execute judgment. 



Kroeber (op. cit., 83), in speaking of 

 the Indians of California generally, says 

 that the social structure was simple and 

 loose, there being no trace of a gentile 

 organization and that it is hardly correct 

 to speak of tribes. Above the family the 

 only units of organization were the vil- 

 lage and the dialect; the common bond 

 was similarity of language or frequency 

 and cordiality of intercourse; in most 

 cases the larger groups were nameless, 

 while the village communities were usu- 

 ally named from localities; the lack of 

 organization generally made the system- 

 atic classification of the divisions of any 

 large body of Indians difficult; in popu- 

 lation and social life the village approxi- 

 mated a localized clan, but, being the 

 largest political unit, it corresponded in 

 a measure to a tribe. In so simple a con- 

 dition of society difference of rank natu- 

 rallj' found but little scope. The influence 

 of chiefs was small, and no distinct classes 

 of nobles or slaves were known. 



IMooney says that the Kiowa govern- 

 ment was formerly lodged in a council of 

 chiefs, composed of the presiding chief, 

 the chiefs of the several bands, and the 

 war chiefs. Women had no voice in the 

 government. The Cheyenne have no 

 head chief, but instead have a council 

 composed of 40 chiefs and 4 ex-chiefs. 



Some of the tribes, like the Five Civil- 

 ized Tribes, the eastern Cherokee, and the 

 Seneca of New York, have written consti- 

 tutions patterned largely after European 

 ideas. That of the Seneca is confirmed 

 by the legislature of New York. 



See Chiefs, Clan mid Gens, Confedera- 

 tion, Family, Kinship, Social organization, 

 Tribe. (j. n. b. h. ) 



Governmental policy. The policy of the 

 several governments toward the Indians 

 and their methods of pursuing it were 



