EADiN] RELIGION 289 



or success on the warpath to the most insignificant trifles. Practi- 

 cally any spirit, no matter how indefinitely conceived, can hestow 

 generalized blessings. On the whole, however, these powers are con- 

 ceived of as bemg m the hands of a comparatively small number, 

 and the same powers are frequently possessed by difi'erent spirits. 

 This will become clear after a careful perusal of the fasting experi- 

 ences. 



As to the prevalence of the belief m the localization of spirits, not 

 only among the Winnebago but over all North America, there can 

 no longer be any doubt. Among the Winnebago there are as many 

 spirits as there are lakes, hills, rivers, etc., and all these are looked 

 upon from two points of view, fu-st as the bestowers of certain bless- 

 ings and, secondly, as the protectors of their own precmcts. In the 

 first case they are generally identical with the guardian spirits. In 

 the second case they are simply vague, indistinct spirits to whom 

 offerings are made for temporary protection. So when a Wumebago 

 crossed a river or lake he poured tobacco into the water as a recom- 

 pense for trespassing, and uttered the prayer that no storms should 

 arise or that he shoidd not come to grief. 



As to whether the spirits here are the lakes, rivers, hills, etc., or 

 some being inhabiting them, the answer is, unquestionably the latter. 



The Twofold Interpretation of the Relation of the Spirits 



TO Man 



We mentioned before (p. 279) that the interpretation of the rela- 

 tionship between the spirits and man was largely mechanical, bless- 

 ings being secured apparently independent of any volition on the 

 part of the spirits, for if the Wiimebago make the requisite offer- 

 ings to the Thunderbirds they must accept them and bestow on the 

 suppliant the powers they possess. While this interpretation was 

 undoubtedly the popular one, the shamans tried to develop another 

 explanation — what might be called a "contract" theory. The 

 spirits possessed the various powers without which man could achieve 

 only a modicum of success; and man possessed tobacco, corn, eagle 

 feathers, buckskin, etc. His principal possession, however, was 

 tobacco, and this had been given him directly by Earthmaker. The 

 contract was definite and distinct: man was to give the spirits 

 tobacco, etc. ; and the spirits were to give man the powers they con- 

 trolled. Accompanying this change of interpretation, there was a 

 difference of attitude, the prineipal characteristic of which was a 

 heightened religious feeling. This change of interpretation is clearly 

 showm in the concept of the guardian spirit. 



