318 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [bull. 40 



The number of prefixes is very small, and by far the majority of 

 grammatical ideas are expressed by means of suffixes and syntactic 

 particles. Reduplication, although frequently resorted to, is used to 

 express only a limited number of categories; while the phonetic 

 changes are very rare, and exhibit a decidedly petrified character. 



§ 16. IDEAS EXPRESSED BY GRAMMATICAL PROCESSES 



All stems seem to be neutral, and their nominal or verbal character 

 depends chiefly upon the suffixes with which they are used. Conse- 

 quently two different suffixes — one of a verbal and the other of a 

 nominal character — may be added to the same stem, nominalizing or 

 verbalizing it, according to the requirements of the occasion. In the 

 following pages a distinction is made between verbal and nominal 

 stems, which is based solely upon the sense in which the stem is used. 



All prefixes express ideas of an adverbial character. 



By far the majority of verbal suffixes indicate ideas of action and 

 such concepts as involve a change of the subject or object of the 

 verb. Hence ideas indicating causation, reciprocity, reflexive action, 

 the passive voice, the imperative, etc., are expressed by means of suf- 

 fixes. The pronouns denoting both subject and object of an action 

 are indicated by suffixes. Only semi-temporal ideas, such as the 

 inchoative, frequentative, and transitional stages, are expressed by 

 means of suffixes; while the true temporal concepts are indicated 

 by syntactic particles. Instrumentality and agency are also indicated 

 by suffixes. 



All local relations are expressed by nominal suffixes. Abstract 

 concepts are formed by means of suffixes. 



Ideas of plurality are very little developed, and, with the exception 

 of a few suffixes, are expressed by different verbal and nominal stems. 

 Distributive plurality occurs very often, especially in the verb, and 

 is indicated by suffixes or by reduplication. Reduplication expresses, 

 furthermore, continuation, duration, and repetition of action. 



A great variety of concepts are expressed by syntactic particles, 

 especially ideas relating to emotional states and to degrees of certainty. 



In the pronoun, three persons, and a singular, dual, and plural, are 

 distinguished. Grammatical gender does not exist. The first person 

 dual has two distinct forms, — one indicating the inclusive (I and thou) 

 and the other the exclusive (I and he). 



§ Id 



