46 BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY [Bull. 194 



than that of the winter camps, even in later years when the population 

 of each summer village occupied the same winter camp. Summer was 

 a period of intensive activity for the women and many of the older 

 men in the gardens, planting and caring for the growing crops of corn, 

 beans, squash, and sunflowers. There were corn scaffolds to build 

 or repair, former seasons' crops to be restored, cache pits to be built, 

 and many other duties relating to the production, curing, and storing 

 of the crops. This was the period of small hunting expeditions into 

 the adjacent areas and one large communal summer hunting expedi- 

 tion organized so as not to interfere with the caring for the gardens. 



Summer was also the period of greatest war activity. When the 

 last snows were thawing, the rivers were clear of ice, the horses had 

 regained their strength, and the men talked of warfare ; even those too 

 old or too young to participate actively talked about it. Those 

 intending to go out cried and fasted on the prairie, offered feasts to 

 the older men for assurances of successes and advice, and looked to 

 their riding equipment and ceremonial bundles as plans were formu- 

 lated to leave the villages in search of their enemies. Simultaneously, 

 enemy groups moved from their wintering grounds to the summer 

 ranges while their young men made similar plans to raid the Hidatsa 

 and other earth lodge villages. Although the Hidatsa emphasized 

 warfare and encouraged the young men to carry on continuous warfare 

 against their enemies, and all males hoped to show pubhcly symbols 

 of their military accomplishments, it was necessary for the village at 

 times to restrict military activities so that enough able-bodied men 

 were always at hand to defend the aged, the women, and the children 

 from attacks on the village. In these situations the role of the top 

 leadership, the council, and the dual chiefs armed with the authority 

 of public opinion, becomes evident; a war leader asked to remain in 

 the village when many parties were out was acclaimed as highly as 

 those who had returned with military honors. Since the protection 

 of the village was primarily the duty of the Black Mouth society, the 

 status of that group which effectively protected the village from 

 attacks was greatly enhanced; its members automatically became 

 members of the council when rehnquishing their society to the pre- 

 ceding age-group. Not only must the village be defended from 

 attack but the women must be protected while working in their 

 gardens or getting wood. All these activities required close integra- 

 tion of the entire population. 



This was the period of greatest ceremonial activities. All of the 

 corn, snake, and rain rites were performed at that time; likewise the 

 NaxpikE (Sun Dance) and Wolf rites were held during the hottest 

 part of the summer. The Hidatsa liked a well-performed ceremony 

 but, by virtue of the inheritance pattern, there were frequently more 



