MINDELEFF.] ROOF OPENINGS. 205 
The survival to the present time of such an inconvenient arrangement 
in the kivas can be explained only on the ground of the intense con- 
servatism of these people in all that pertains to religion. In the small 
roof holes methods of construction are seen which would not be so prac- 
ticable on the larger scale of the ladder holes after which they have 
been modeled. In these latter the sides are built up of masonry or 
adobe, but the framing around them is more like the usual coping 
over walls. The stone that, set on edge in the small openings built for 
the admission of light, forms a raised end never occurs in these. The 
ladder for access rests against the coping. 
When occurring in connection with kivas, ladder holes have certain 
peculiarities in which they differ from the ordinary form used in dwell- 
ings. The opening in such cases is made of large size to admit dancers 
in costume with full paraphernalia. These, the largest roof openings to 
be found in Zuni, are framed with pieces of wood. The methods of 
Ware 
i) 
ee 
Tia. 98. Kiva trapdoor in Zuni. 
holding the pieces in place vary somewhat in minor detail. It is quite 
likely that recent examples, while still preserving the form and general 
appearance of the earlier ones, would bear evidence that the builders 
had used their knowledge of improved methods of joining and finishing. 
As may readily be seen from the illustration, Fig. 98, this framing, by 
the addition of a cross piece, divides the opening unequally. The 
smaller aperture is situated immediately above the fireplace (which 
conforms to the ancient type without chimney and located in the open 
floor of the room) and is very evidently designed to furnish an outlet to 
the smoke. In a chamber having no side doors or windows, or at most 
