382 pishes. 



the border of their thorax represent the opercula, and underneath 

 these borders virtual branchiae are found. But let us only go a little 

 further and every thing is reversed ; the medullary cord is towards the 

 belly, the heart towards the back, and this heart, like that of the mol- 

 lusca, receives blood from the branchiae instead of sending it to them. 

 Thus, in desperation for the cause, do some show an anxiety to find 

 the rays or spinous apophyses of the vertebrae in the feet of the Crus- 

 tacea ; but then this would be so far from an improvement towards 

 perfection, that it would be an obvious degeneration. 



The approximation of fishes to the other vertebrated animals, is not 

 altogether so badly established as all that. Here, at least, those per- 

 ceptible relations commence in the number of the system of organs, 

 and in their mutual connections, but there is still a greater distance 

 from, — I do not say an identity, — but, even an appearance of a pro- 

 gressive process. 



The head of fishes, and still better, their cranium, is divided into a 

 number of bones, very nearly resembling that which is observed in 

 birds and saurian reptiles, or in the lizard tribes. Now, since it hap- 

 pens that there is also some resemblance, though much less complete 

 between these bones and those of the foetus in the mammalia, and 

 again, as the circulation of reptiles bears some relation to that of the 

 foetus in the mammalia, the oviparous classes, but especially the rep- 

 tiles, are regarded as mammalia, arrested in the first stage of their de- 

 velopment. And then the comparison is pushed on to the fishes, whose 

 respiration and circulation, so far as the vessels are concerned, are 

 very nearly the same as in the tadpoles of frogs, and other batrachian 

 reptiles, and therefore it is concluded, that they represent the tad- 

 poles, and that consequently they are — in some way or another, foetuses 

 of the second degree, the foetuses of the fetus ! But when these rela- 

 tions, in the number of bones, would be as complete as they are few, 

 when we cease to remember, that precisely the reptiles most approxi- 

 mated to the fishes, the frog, and salamander, in all their states, have 

 considerably fewer bones in the cranium and the face, than fishes, and 

 even than the mammalia ; this method of reasoning would not be less 

 vicious, inasmuch as it would only take into consideration, as we 

 have just stated, merely one or two points, and it either puts all the 

 rest aside, or bringing them into the system by means of hypotheses, 

 which are utterly repugnant to common sense. Let us, however, 

 admit that the entire apparatuses are completely inverted, that the 

 bones belonging to one organ are inserted between those of another, 

 that the bones which, in one class, are situated at each other's sides, 

 ascend upon each other in the succeeding class ; that a combination, 

 which had been diminishing and approaching a more simple condi- 

 tion, like that of the small tympanal bones, suddenly resumes the 

 number of its components, and also an enormous size, in order to carry 

 on a function altogether of a different nature, that of protecting the 

 branchiae ; now, even when we have succeeded in obtaining all these 

 concessions, what is it that we have gained ? for, if an examination 

 be made, it will be found still that the number of pieces sought for, 

 are not forthcoming ; that these pieces are not in connection in the 

 place where they ought to be ; in a word, that there is nothing what- 



