602 THE AGRICULTURAL GAZETTE. 
in the farmer’s store of knowledge, are they on that ac-| 
count less useful to him? It must of necessity be that 
whatever relates to the increase of produce is far more 
important than what relates to the conversion of that 
produce into a different kind of food. Bread is the 
“staff of life,"—not meat ; so that, itl ding th: 
[Supr. 5, 
the true position of the proxi ised elements 
of nutrition :— 
Albumen (of blood) d» ^ 10Pr4-28-FP 
ibrin TM . .. e loPr+ SP 
Casein .. m e =. 
In the above, S and P respectively represent sulphur 
e 
“carnal” tastes of the agricultural mind, the produc- 
tion of grain is the principal object of the science; and, 
therefore, imp in cultivation (improveme: 
in implements) are of primary importance; whilst im- 
provements in the breeds of stock are only secondary 
and subordinate. Such being the case, I believe that 
agricultural societies may and ought to exist without 
the show of animals taking the foremost place; or 
this most attractive portion of the meeting might be 
dropped altogether without any “dwindling away ” of 
the members and supporters. Perhaps the following 
example will explain a little how this could be aeeom- 
plished. The association to which I belong, a year or 
two ago, awarded prizes to fat stock, implements, 
labourers, &e., and had been working for some time ex- 
tremely well. At length, for want of more spirit and 
perseverance amongst the subscribers, the funds began 
to fall short, and, by way of retrenchment, the pre- 
miums for stock were dispensed with. The conse- 
quence of this was, that many members withdrew their 
Support ; the meetings were much less numerously at- 
tended; the company evinced less interest and anima- 
tion ; a general dullness pervaded the whole proceed- 
ings ; and, in short, everything manifested a declension 
towards apathy, sluggisl and dissoluti at 
worthy emulation amongst the candidates which had 
been the lifeand energy of the society, was now lost ; 
and the zeal of members who had added to the show- 
yard their cattle and competition, now sunk to a 
“minimum of intensity.” The committee soon per- 
ceived that something more was needful than rewarding 
the ploughman, shepherd, hedger, stacker, thatcher, 
underdrainer, &e. ; they found that the society could 
no longer preserve its tremulous existence unless com- 
petition was excited amongst its members. Accord- 
ingly, prizes have been offered for the best cultivated 
farm, and for the best crop of Turnips. A healthy 
vigour now pervades all the operations, and the com- 
mittee are now realising a thorough and complete 
i ivi ity, and success. 
revival of activity, p 
This, then, is the secret of a thriving society—not 
only to reward the labourer, but to make the show-day 
one of personal interest to the members, and inculeate 
and impress upon them the important benefits both 
themselves and all agriculture derive from improved 
labourers and better implements.—JZ. A. C. 
ON SOME CHEMICAL POINTS CONNECTED 
WITH THE FEEDING OF CATTLE. 
One of the greatest physiological distinctions between 
ihe vegetable and animal kingdoms consists in the dif- 
ferent food they respectively require for their nutrition 
and growth—the latter consuming organised materials 
for that purpose ; whilst for the former division, unor- 
ganised and mineral matters effect the same end, and 
become converted into organic substances necessary 
for the support of animals. In this manner, dependent 
upon the property it possesses of converting inorganic 
material into organic food, does the vegetable prove 
subservient to the animal kingdom by affording it food 
for growth and sustenance, assimilated by the organs of 
plants into albumen, gluten, and casein, from carbonic 
acid, the refuse of animal respiration ; from the nitrogen 
of the air, and from the minerals. A little consideration 
will show that the difference between the nutrient prin- 
ciples of plants and animals is more real than apparent ; 
in fact, that they are identical. Liebig divides the sub- 
stances of which the food of man is composed into two 
great classes—I. Those into which nitrogen enters as a 
eonstituent—azorisep. II. Those into the constitution 
of which nitrogen does not enter—non-azotisep. Th 
individual substances, according to the above arrange- 
ment, stand thus :— 
I. Vegetable albumen (asthe kernel of nuts, &e.) ; 
vegetable fibrin (or gluten, as in Wheat); vegetable 
casein (or legumin, in Peas, Beans, &e.) Exaetly 
identicaiin composition are—Animal albumen (as white 
of egg); animal fibrin (principal part of animal musele); 
ve casein (entering largely into the composition of 
mi 
© 
ilk). 
Il. Fat, starch, gum, various kinds of sugar, alco- 
hol, &e. 
Chemieal and physiologieal research have shown, un- 
questionably, that among the above substances, the 
proximate principles of animals and vegetables, those 
alone can afford support to an animal which contain 
nitrogen, or belong to the first division ; and that more or 
less of such is required for that purpose according as it 
is deficient or abounds in nitrogen as a constituent. It 
would far exceed the limits of this paper to speak in 
detail of the various modifications of these azotised con- 
stituents, Suffice it to say that albumen, fibrin, and 
casein ie of animal or vegetable origin, are 
ical, 
Mulder has established the existence of a proximate 
principle common to them all, as their basis: to this 
substance he applies the name Protein —the difference 
between the compounds being simply in the presence of 
small and varying quantities of sulphur and phosphorus. 
For the composition of protein, Mulder gives the em- 
pirical formule—Cao Hsi Ns Oro (i. e., 40 carbon, 
31 hydrogen, 5 nitrogen, and 12 ox gen). If Pr. is 
made to represent this substance symbolically, the fol- 
lowing formula will give an approximationj:to, if not 
and phosp e now pass on to the second 
division, the non-azotised elements of nutrition. 
For the due discharge of its various functions, it is 
essential that the auimal body should be kept at a cer- 
tain temperature under whatever varying circumstances 
it may be placed ; this is found to be in man from 98° 
to 100°, and in cattle about 100? ; slight variations in 
the standard are found in the various grades of the ani- 
mal kingdom, according to the habits of the individual 
and the functions it has to discharge, as well as itsmode 
of life. 
This important end is attained by respiration. Re- 
spiration, in a chemical point of view, is simply the 
union of oxygen from the air with carbon contained in 
lungs, is taken into the circulation and converted into 
fat, being found as such in the blood, and is finally de- 
posited in the fat cells. 
is view accords, in a singular manner, with many 
well established faets eonnected with the feeding of 
cattle ; if an animal is fed with highly azotised food it 
becomes full of flesh, especially if, at the same time, 
sufficient exercise is taken to consume the carbonised 
materials by respiration ; but if, on the contrary, sub- 
stances rich in starch or sugar, or other non-azotised 
principles, are employed for food, little flesh is acquired, 
ut abundanee of fat, and this is more particularly the 
case if. rest is enjoined with the use of these materials, 
inasmuch as by such a plan of proceeding less carbon is 
employed in the lungs and more left at liberty to form 
fat. Thus, then, by placing an individual under cireum- 
stances where he consumes less oxygen, a greater quan- 
tity of fat is developed ; such circumstances are found 
in the stall-fed animal, where deficient exercise and 
ne oes 
the blood. This process of slow t of carbon 
in the lungs is continual, and thus is afforded the due 
amount of heat to the animal economy.  Despretz has 
hed cooling are equivalent'to a diminished supply 
of oxygen, and less waste is consequently experienced 
by motion and inereased efforts to preserve the animal 
shown that 1 oz. of carbon b i. e. union 
with oxygen) evolves 14,207? of heat; Boussingault 
takes, as a mean, the daily consumption of carbon b; 
man to be 14 oz. Now, 14x14,207—198,898? of heat 
given out by man in 24 hours; and by deducting from 
this the loss of heat by vaporisation of water through 
the skin and lungs, we have left about 146,380° of heat 
for the various purposes of the animal economy (Liebig). 
Thus, then, it is evident that the amount of heat de- 
veloped bears a simple proportion to the amount of 
carbon consumed by oxidation in the lungs, and this will 
be dependent upon many and varying circumstances, 
In an easy respiration the quantity of air taken into 
the chest of a man is about 15 or 18 cubic inches ; in 
winter the air, being condensed, will contain, bulk for 
bulk, more oxygen than in summer, when the air is 
expanded ; this remark applies with an equal degree of 
truthtowarm andeoldelimates. Inadditionto anumerous 
train of modifying dependent onthep dingfaets, 
regarding the consumption of oxygen, numerous others 
exist dependent upon peculiar circumstances under 
which the animal may be placed. All motion is attended 
with 1 d respiration, and ] ly the forma- 
tion of an additional amount of carbonic acid; and it 
has already been shown how temperature influences this 
rocess. 
It is, then, to support this important function that 
the non-azotised elements are employed in a great mea- 
sure; the residue serves another purpose, viz, the 
formation of fat, of which we have to speak presently. 
The preponderance of carbon, in these proximate ele- 
ments, over their other constituents would point them 
out as the most fit for the purposes of respiration. 
Their constitution is thus :— 
Fat: 10 0.410 H.40, 
Starch :12 ©. +10 H. +100, 
Sugar: 12 0.49 H. +9 0. 
Alcohol: 4 C.4.6 H. 4-2 0. 
It remains for us now briefly to consider the chemi- 
cal and physiological relations of fat. 
Fat is a peculiar substance deposited in all parts of 
the body, in the cells of the cellular tissue, and appa- 
rently requiring no special structure for its formation. 
It is composed of three fatty acids, viz., stearic, mar- 
garic, and oleic acids,in combination with a peculiar 
organic base (glycerine). These acids vary in different 
kinds of fat; the first abounding in the hard, the second 
in the soft, and the third in the liquid fats and oils. 
Some fats contain peculiar substances, as that of the 
brain, which contains phosphorus. 
Some difference of opinion exists regarding the pro- 
duction of fatty material in the animal economy. e 
French chemists seem inclined to consider that all the 
fat found in the body is derived from the substances 
taken as food containing fat; in fact, that fat is fur- 
nished to the system ready formed. The graminivorous 
tribes take it in ready formed with their food, and car- 
nivorous animals, in whom, however, it is usually very 
scanty, derive it from them; therefore, certainly, di- 
rectly or indirectly, the fat of an animal is derived from 
the fats, oils, wax, &c., more or less of which exists in our 
vegetable food. But as it is an undoubted fact that the 
quantity of fat in an animal is by no means always pro- 
portional to the quantity he derives from his food, we 
are led to conclude that the power of producing fat 
exists as well in the animal as vegetable world. While 
Oats contain as much as 5.6 of fatty matter, Turnips 
contain scarcely any, yet animals speedily fatten on 
them. Again, Boussingault has shown that in the pro- 
cess of fattening pigs more fat is formed than is found 
in their food. Mulder remarks—-* The opinion that fats 
may really be produced in the animal body from the 
food is strongly supported by the fact that some fais 
are actually and necessarily produced ; for instance, 
fats of the brain, cholesterin, cetin, and many other 
p ting fact has been pointed 
out by Dr. Playfair, that the lungs of the good feeding 
breed of eattle are of small capacity, giving us this in- 
ference, that respiration is in them reduced, as it were, 
to the smallest capacity. 
It is impossible in short limits to follow Liebig 
fhrough his abstruse but interesting course of reason- 
ing; but it is desirable to show how readily the non- 
azotised principles may become fat. If, for example, 
we take for the purpose of illustration, starch. Iffrom 
this substance we subtract one equivalent of carbonic 
acid, and seven of oxygen, we have left the elements of 
fat thus: C12 Hio O10—(C O2+0 7)=Cii Hio O; if 
by peculiar processes in the animal organism, fat is thus 
formed by a separation of oxygen and carbonie acid, 
then it is probable that these latter substances are not 
given out in the free state; in faet we know they are 
not; but that they meet in the system with other snb- 
stances, with which they possess the property of enter- 
ing into combination, 
“Whatever views," writes Liebig, “we may enter- 
tain regarding the origin of the fatty constituents of the 
ody, this much at least is undeniable, that the herbs 
and roots consumed by the cow contain no butter ; that 
in hay or other fodder of oxen no suet exists ; that no 
hog'slard can be found in the Potato refuse given to 
swine ; and that the food of geese or fowls contain no 
goose or capon fat. The masses of fat found in these 
animals are formed in their organism ; and when the 
full value of this fact is recognised, it entitles us to con- 
clude that a certain quantity of oxygen, in some form 
or other, separates from the constituents of their food 3 
for without such separation of oxygen, no fat could be 
formed from one of these substances." 
Great interest has lately been excited on the question 
of fattening cattle, in q of import: 
which has been attached to it in connection with the 
question of the repeal of the malt-tax. It has been 
argued that the agricultural interest would be mate- 
rially benefited by such repeal, as under such circum- 
stances malt might be then advantageously used for the 
fattening of cattle. But before giving up a revenue of 
nearly 5,000,000/., afforded by the tax on malt, Govern- 
ment determined to test the question experimentally, 
and accordingly employed Dr. Thompson and Dr. R. 
Thompson to examine the matter. Their report on the 
subject contains results of an. extremely interesting 
character, both as regards the comparative value 0} 
malt and Barley in the production of milk and butter im 
the cow, as well as the production of fat in animals. 
Before a determinate conclusion can be formed of 
the relative value of these two substances for the pre- 
ceding uses, several important facts must be understood 
and borne in mind respecting the relation of malt and 
Barley to each other. 100 parts of Barley, dried at à 
temperature of 2129,]eaves 90:54 of dry matter, ie.» 
loses nearly 10 per cent. of moisture. The dried speci- 
men consisting of C 46:11, H 6:65, N 1:91, O 42:24, 
Ash 3:09—100. The quantity of N (nitrogen) would 
indicate about 12:25 per cent. albumen. 
By the process of malting, Barley undergoes a pecu- 
liar change, that of germination. Barley is steeped iD 
water, and then exposed to air in thick layers, at ? 
moderate p and frequently turned ; thi9 
produces germination of the seed; the process is the 
checked by drying in a current of warm air as soon a9 
the sprouts have acquired a length about equal to 
that of the seeds; they now constitute malt, The 
essential change which is caused by these processes, 
far as regards our present purpose, is the production 0 
a peculiar substance, diastase, in all probability at E e 
expense of the fibrin of the grain, by which the amyAa- 
ceous portion is partly converted into dextrine (2 MOA 
fication of starch), and finally, into sugar. 3 
During the process, there is a considerable evolution 
peculiar fats, Now, if fats are produced in the animal 
body, it must be either from other fats or from other sub- 
stances, such as starch. Both processes are the same, 
in so far as in every case there must be a re-arrange- 
ment of the elements. In a scientific point of view, 
therefore, there is nothing unlikely in the opinion that 
animals are able to produce fat.” Liebig is another 
opponent of the doctrine, and brings forward most 
powerful reasoning to support his view of the subject. 
He considers fat to be produced from the starchy and 
saccharine matter consumed by animals ; all excess of 
these principles not employed in the produetion of heat 
by the combustion of the constituent carbon in the! 
of earbonie acid, produced from the carbonaceous pore 
tions of the Barley uniting with the oxygen of the air 5 
this consumption, and other losses during the process, 
by steeping, &e., cause a dimunition in the weight 
the grain, amounting to about 13 per cent. E 
ing, the two substances thus stand in relation 
proximate constituents :— 
ter * 
to their 
Malt 
Barley 
Gluten .. 3 15 
Sugar oe 4 m 
Gum Aot. 69 
Starch 141588 
"100 . 100 : 
The total loss which Barley sustains by malting 
