140 



NA TURE 



[December ii, 1902 



kite-expedition in the South Atlantic was fully approved, and 

 the hope was expressed that, with the aid of Government funds, 

 the project might be realised in the near future. Mr. Berson 

 remarked that it was of the greatest importance that the British 

 as well as the Dutch Governments should encourage meteor- 

 ological observations in the monsoon region, and Major Trollope, 

 speaking for Great Britain, said that he would endeavour to 

 have this done. 



M. Teisserenc de Bort showed a diagram of the results ob- 

 tained from continuous soundings of the atmosphere, or those 

 made as frequently as possible at his observatory at Trappes, 

 viz., on thirty-six days in January and February, 1901, when 

 kites and registration balloons (ballons-sondes) were sent almost 

 daily into the higher atmosphere to an extreme height of 12,000 

 metres. The plotted results throw doubt on the assumption 

 that the barometric depressions bring higher temperatures and 

 the barometric maxima lower temperatures, and give an in- 

 teresting demonstration of the diversity and complexity of the 

 atmospheric phenomena of which it is the aim of international 

 aeronautics to ascertain the laws. 



The fourth meeting was principally occupied with the sub- 

 ject of high ascents, and an apparatus for breathing oxygen at 

 great altitudes was shown by i'rof. Cailletet. 



Dr. Siiring spoke on the ascension which he had made with 

 Mr. Berson on July 31, 1901, to the height of 10,800 metres, 

 the greatest height yet reached by man. He insisted upon 

 the importance of such high ascents to control the observ- 

 ations otherwise obtained and to make those that require direct 

 vision. Especially are the strata from 5000 to 10,000 metres 

 not yet adequately explored, and for weather changes they are 

 of grot importance, as is indicated by the scarcity of clouds 

 near 4000 metres and above 6000 metres. 



Lieutenant von Lucanus, in the name of the German Ornitho- 

 logical Society, asked aeronauts to observe the various heights 

 at which birds are found. It is now supposed that the height 

 above the ground at which birds fly does not generally exceed 

 400 metres, and only occasionally reaches 2000 metres, the 

 zone usually remaining below the lower clouds. Still, much 

 uncertainty prevails concerning the tracks of birds, and espe- 

 cially the heights of flights, and information is greatly desired. 



The fifth session was mostly devoted to a discussion of 

 observations of atmospheric electricity and terrestrial mag- 

 netism in balloons. Prof. Hergesell explained that electrical 

 measurements are of such vital interest that the academies of 

 Berlin, Munich, Gottingen, Leipzig and Vienna were to have 

 been represented at this meeting by Profs, von Bezold, Ebert, 

 Wagner, Wiener and Exner. The latter, who is the Nestor 

 of this branch of physics, was prevented from attending, 

 but Prof. Elster, of Wolfenbiittel, was present among the 

 experts. Prof. Ebert, of Munich, said that constituents 

 containing electrical charges had been found recently in 

 the air through their physical properties. These carriers of 

 electricity are called "ions," or, more correctly, "electrons." 

 At the earth's surface, their presence may be shown by the 

 dissipation apparatus of Elster and Geitel, and the smallest 

 quantity of electricity may be recorded by means of an elec- 

 trometer. The speaker had adapted this apparatus for use in 

 balloons, and, by employing an aspirator, a fixed quantity of 

 air could be drawn over the dissipating body and absolute 

 measurements made of the amount of free electricity contained 

 in a cubic metre of air. It is of importance in geophysics to 

 know how the capacity of the air for positive and negative 

 electrons varies with altitude, and therefore the speaker had 

 made such determinations, finding near the earth many more 

 positive than negative electrons, but whether this is a result 

 of the negatively charged earth is uncertain. In the high 

 strata, the inequality tends to disappear, but considerations 

 that throw doubt on the balloon observations relate partly to 

 the electrical discharges produced by the ultra-violet light 

 rays and partly to the indeterminate moment of aspiration 

 in a rising or falling balloon. Prof. Ebert considered the 

 cooperation of aeronauts valuable, and cited as a result of 

 the investigation in the Alps that in the foehn wind an excess 

 of positive electrons is found, and this disturbance of the elec- 

 trical equilibrium perhaps may cause the foehn sickness. 

 Prof. Elster described two experiments that proved the ex- 

 istence of the electrons, one being the radiation of Becquerel 

 rays after two hours from an insolated and stretched copper 

 wire charged with 2000 volts. It was agreed by both experts 

 that the cleaner and clearer the air the more electrons it contains. 



NO. I728, VOL. 6/] 



Before closing the Congress, the resolutions proposed, after 

 undergoing certain modifications, were adopted by the com- 

 mittee in executive session, the Congress itself being only a con- 

 sulting and advisory body. Besides the resolutions mentioned 

 already, it was determined that the international ascents of bal- 

 loons and kites during the next year should take place, as has 

 been the case this year, on the first Thursday of every month, 

 and that at least one of the ballons-sondes liberated at any station 

 should be sent up one hour before sunrise in order that its 

 records may not be affected by solar radiation, and also that 

 the balloon may be seen when it falls to earth in the early 

 morning. The Richard thermograph, with Teisserenc de Bort's 

 insulating device, should be used, and the Hergesell instrument 

 having a tube of German silver, instead of the Bourbon tube 

 filled with alcohol, was also recommended on account of its sen- 

 sitiveness and durability. Ascensions at other hours and with 

 different apparatus are discretionary. The president, Prof. 

 Hergesell, in summing up the results of the Congress, which he 

 regarded as eminently satisfactory, laid special importance on 

 the meteorological kite flights that were proposed over seas, 

 lakes and mountains, and hoped that the British Government, 

 by similar work in India, would help in the investigation of the 

 great Asiatic monsoon region. A grant of money was requested 

 from the German Government to enable the Prussian Meteor- 

 ological Institute to cooperate with the writer in his proposed 

 investigation of the atmosphere over the Atlantic Ocean. It 

 was announced that in order to facilitate international re- 

 searches in scientific aeronautics, the formation of an organis- 

 ation, sustained by the various European nations, would be 

 attempted. 



UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL 

 INTELLIGENCE. 



Oxford. — Ax election will be held at Brasenose College in 

 March, 1903, to an ordinary fellowship, of the value of 200/. a 

 year, tenable for seven years, after an examination in the subjects 

 recognised in the Honour School of Animal Physiology. Weight 

 will be attached to work exhibiting research in some subject of 

 physiological study. 



The electors to Dr. Lee's readership in chemistry will 

 appoint a reader in January, 1903, and they invite candi- 

 dates to submit their names and qualifications before January 1. 

 The reader must lecture in two at least of the three University 

 terms, and, in addition to the duties performed for the Univer- 

 sity, he may be required, as an official student of Christ Church, 

 to take part in the educational work of the house by giving 

 lectures or other instruction in chemistry and directing the work 

 of the chemical laboratory. 



Convocation has granted 200/. to the Wykeham professor of 

 physics to defray the expenses of fittings for his laboratory. 



Cambridge. — The reader in geography and the lecturers in 

 ethnology and geology have arranged for a series of lectures 

 and practical courses to serve as a training for persons wishing 

 to undertake exploration or desirous of contributing to our 

 knowledge of foreign countries. The series will be held during 

 the Lent term, and will include history of geographical dis- 

 covery, principles of physical geography, map-making and 

 map-reading, and geography of Europe, by Mr. Oldham ; 

 anthropogeography, practical ethnology, by Prof. Haddon ; 

 geomorphology and geology, by Mr. Marr ; plane-table and 

 photographic surveying, by Mr. Garwood ; and elementary 

 astronomical surveying, by Mr. Hinks. The courses will be 

 open to members of the University and others. The fee for all 

 is 3/. y. Further particulars may be obtained from Prof. 

 Haddon, Museum of Archaeology, Cambridge. 



A syndicate has been appointed to considerjwhat changes, if 

 any, are desirable in the regulations that affect the mathematical 

 portions of the pass examinations of the University, in particular 

 of the previous examination. The members of the syndicate 

 are : — The Vice-Chancellor, Mr. C. Smith, Prof. Forsyth, Dr. 

 Hobson, Mr. W. L. Mollison, Mr. C. A. E. Pollock, Mr. 

 W. Welsh, Prof. G. B. Mathews, Mr. S. Barnard, Mr. W. M. 

 Coates, Mr. E. T. Whittaker and Mr. A. W. Siddons. It is 

 probable that the syndicate will recommend changes analogous 

 to those which have been introduced in connection with the 

 University local examinations, especially as regards the 

 dominance of Euclid. 



