146 
formula are correct, the inverse calculation provides 
a spectroscopic method of determining the mass of the 
electron. The available observations give the mass of 
the hydrogen atom in terms of that of the electron as 
1836+12, in remarkable agreement with the generally 
accepted value. ; ; 
Until other evidence is forthcoming, it may be con- 
sidered that the line spectrum of hydrogen consists only 
of the Balmer series, with parallel series in the infra- 
red and extreme ultra-violet. The proto-helium spec- 
trum is of the same simple character, and this sim- 
plicity gives the two spectra a special value in theo- 
retical investigations. Bohr’s theory implies that are 
series in general are produced when only one electron 
is removed from the atom by the exciting source, and 
spark series when two electrons are removed. 
The change in the character of the series in passing 
from arc to enhanced lines suggests the possibility of 
series requiring still greater multiples of the ordinary 
series constant, but no such series have yet been 
identified. 
PRACTICAL EDUCATION IN SECONDARY 
SCHOOLS, (TRADE SCHOOLS,” “AND 
CENTRAL SCHOOLS? 
@ee of the most striking features of English educa- 
tion at the present time is the attempt which 
is being made to give a more practical or vocational 
bias to the training of boys and girls between the 
ages of twelve and sixteen years—that is, after the 
completion of the ordinary primary-school curriculum. 
So far as day work is concerned, this tendency is 
operating along two main lines, (a) the modification 
of the traditional secondary-school course by the intro- 
duction in some schools of elementary engineering, 
agriculture, shorthand, typewriting, or of subjects 
grouped under the general name of *‘ educational hand- 
work” (e.g. woodwork, metal-work, domestic sub- 
jects for girls); (b) the development of schools (central 
schools, junior technical schools, trade schools) with a 
pronounced vocational object. 
A. Secondary Schools.—In the year 1911-12, of the 
total. number (39,726) of mew admissions to the 
secondary schools aided by the Board of Education, 
no less than 67-7 per cent. came direct from the 
elementary school. Clearly the great majority of these 
cannot enter one or other of the learned professions, 
but must devote themselves on leaving school to some 
branch of commercial or industrial life. A strong 
public demand has arisen for a modification of the 
curricula of these schools so that the education given 
may be of more direct value to the pupils after leaving 
school. Employers are demanding better trained 
assistance; the parents feel that the additional sacri- 
fices they must make in order to keep their boys and 
girls at the schools after fifteen years of age are not 
sufficiently justified by the benefits to be derived by 
their children from an education which is mainly of 
a literary or classical type. As a_ result, some 
secondary schools have specialised to a certain extent, 
more particularly of course in the higher forms, in 
engineering subjects, others in science (chemistry, 
physics, botany, and biology) as applied to agricul- 
ture, others in commercial and secretarial work, de- 
pending upon the needs and circumstances of the 
locality. Apparently the results of this specialisation, 
where it has been attempted, have been satisfactory. 
The general educational work of the school has gained 
1 (1) Report of the Consultative Committee of the Board of Education on 
Practical Work in Secondary Schools [Cd. 6849]. (Wyman and Sons, ror3. 
Price 1s. 9a. (2) Report of the Board of Education for rgr1i-12 [Cd. 6707]. 
(\Vvman and Sons, 1913.) Price 84d. (3) Regulations for Junior Technical 
Sa eae England and Wales [Cd. 6919]. (Wyman and Sons, 1913.) 
mc2 TI . 
NO: 237O)) VOL 93) 
NATURE 
[APRIL 9, 1914 
in interest and vitality by the increased contact with 
concrete, everyday affairs. Possibly it may help also 
in checking the exodus of the pupils from the 
secondary schools at about the age of fifteen, i.e. 
half-way through their full course. 
The Consultative Committee of the Board of Educa- 
tion issued a short time ago a comprehensive and sug- 
gestive report upon the develapment of ‘‘ educational 
handwork”’ of various kinds (woodwork, metal-work, 
gardening, modelling, and domestic subjects for girls) 
in secondary schools. The report states (p. 5) that 
the evidence of the witnesses ‘‘leaves no room for 
doubt as to the necessity and the practicability of 
giving such work a more definite place in secondary 
education than it has hitherto occupied, and of asso- 
ciating it so far as possible with the rest of the work 
of the school.’? While it is not the function of the 
secondary school to impart technical instruction, it 
should provide those of its pupils whose future call- 
ings may involve manual work or the utilisation and 
control of such work with a foundation on which 
technical instruction may subsequently be built. 
‘Systematic work with the hands is a necessary con- 
stituent of a liberal education.’’ To train deftness of 
hand, although important, is not the sole or even the 
chief aim of handwork teaching. The principal object 
is to influence the mind and character of the pupils 
by developing their common sense, readiness, and 
adaptability. In addition it brings the work of the 
school into close relation with the needs of daily life 
outside the class-room, thus giving school work that 
reality which is so important for arousing the child’s 
interest. Manual training has a valuable steadying 
influence upon the over-quick and excitable child, and 
a stimulating effect upon the child who is naturally 
slow at abstract mental processes. 
The recognition of handwork as a compulsory schoof 
subject has been objected to on the ground that it 
involves the addition of one more item to an already 
overburdened time-table. | Experience shows that a 
reasonable amount of time devoted to handwork does 
not lead to any lowering of attainment in other 
branches of school work, but rather the reverse. 
The Committee lays down the following general 
principles for the teaching of all branches of educa- 
tional handwork. The encouragement of independence 
and initiative is of fundamental importance, hence each 
pupil should be allowed to work at his own pace and 
be encouraged to select his own work. Classes should 
be sufficiently small to permit of individual instruction. 
Constructive practice and theory should go hand in 
hand. The syllabus should be logical, coherent, in- 
teresting, and of a direct culture value. A number 
of syllabuses which are in actual operation in schools 
are given in the report. These will be of great value 
to teachers. 
Handwork should be recognised in any general 
examination scheme for secondary schools. External 
examinations in this subject are particularly undesir- 
able; the assessment of the progress made by the pupil 
should be based upon the work done during the 
course. 
The Committee points out that at the present time 
the educational training, status, and remuneration of 
handwork teachers are unsatisfactory. These teachers 
should be on an equality in these matters with their 
colleagues. This type of teaching should not be 
handed over to artisans, but to men with a good 
general education and a special knowledge of educa- 
tional handwork. The universities should provide in- 
creased facilities for this branch of educatign, and 
adequate recognition of those who complete success- 
fully the prescribed courses of study. 
B. Central Schools, Junior Technical Schools, Trade 
Schools.—In this group of schools the work as a 
v——— 
