| Che Gardeners’ € 
THE GARDENERS 
CHRONICLE. 
333 
MONEY FOUND. 
| 
HE Owner of some Monry, found last Saturday 
‘ +L in the Garden of the Horticultural Society, may have it upon 
- application to 21, Regent-street, and describing it correctly, the 
expense of advertisements being deducted, 
SATURDAY, MAY 20, 1843. 
Wednesday, May 24. 
Saturday, May 27... 
Friday, June 2 
a 
| IN the Ratisbon “ Flora, oder Botanische Zeitung,” 
for 1843, p, 67, there is a short notice of, a critique, 
by Dr. Hugo Mohbl, of Tubingen, on Liebig’s Theory 
of the Nutrition of Plants. It appears that this cele- 
brated physiologist, as well as Schleiden, thinks him- 
self bound to speak out on the subject, “seeing that 
iebig’s work, by means of his great reputation, and of 
the boldness with which he gives out his own views 
as settled truths, is calculated on the one hand to mis- 
Tead those who are unfamiliar with vegetable phy- 
Slology, and on the other, to confuse the reader by the 
Opposition of many of his assertions to well-established 
facts, and also by the many contradictions observable 
in the work itself.” : 
_ We have not yet seen Dr. Mohl’s pamphlet, which 
Is said to consist of about 60 pages; but we extract 
the following summary of his conclusions from 
P. 57 of the work above referred to. 
Jt. is the opinion of Professor Mohl, Ist—That 
Licbig has not used the means at his disposal as @ 
Chemist to investigate the doubtful points in the 
> theory of the nutrition of plants. Qndly—That in a 
Manner directly opposed to the true investigation of 
Nature, he does not draw his conclusions from a deep 
Tesearch into individual cases, but from general and 
Superficial observations, some of which are altogether 
UNcertain, and from calculations founded upon the 
Most arbitrary hypotheses, which are therefore for the 
Most part deficient in scientific solidity. 8rdly—That 
is book, far from presenting a consistent theory con- 
sidered in all points of view, is full of contradictions 
and inconsistencies. 4thly—'That he does not’ pos- 
Sess even the mostelementary knowledge of the organ- 
4sation of plants. 5thly——That his assertion that vege- 
table physiologists consider humus as the chief food of 
plants is not true. 6thly—That his proposition that 
plants live entirely on inorganic matter is not new, 
but a disputed question, long since in discussion 
amongst physiologis 7thly — That his asser- 
tion that all Botanists have considered it doubt- 
ful whether plants appropriate to themselves carbon 
y the decomposition of carbonic acid is untrue. 
Sthly—That his assertion that plants neither absorb 
Hor ‘assimilate organic substances rests entirely on 
theoretical speculations, and is wholly unsupported by 
Proof. 9thly—That the whole account given bj 
Liebig of the relation of plants to the atmosphere 
uring darkness is in flagrant contradiction to facts, 
Othly—'That the assertion that nutritious substances 
Containing nitrogen, and those without that element, 
are absorbed in precisely determined proportions, is 
Not confirmed by the chemical analysis of either the 
Seed or plant. | 11thly—That the whole theory of 
Rotation of crops is contrary to experiencé, and 
Inconsequent in itself. 12thly-—That the proposition 
that plants in summer derive their nourishmenf sole) 
fron: the atmosphere is entirely incorrect. 
( dn the other hand, Professor Mohl admits that 
Liebig has, Ist, In considering the nitrogen of plants 
“Ss 
as derived from the ammonia of the atmosphere, pro- 
Tulgated an idea which is an advance in science; 
and 2ndly—as regards the absorption of saline bases, 
bas Made it probable that the quantity of them ig 
* qegulated by the capacity of saturation of the acids 
formed in nee 
Mon soon as we have been able to precure Professor 
which pamphlet, we shall state he sole atc Ota H 
some of these conclusions are founded. 
rd Wl SF see os Sane a 
nae another part of our Paper will be found a full 
€port of the magnificent Exhibition of Flowers and 
we Horticultural Society at Chiswick. To those 
inosine with th se floral gatherings it may appear 
ie a e for cultivation to be carried further than it 
‘ Laas former occasions 5 and yet the Chinese 
gilie a: sein the garden of Lady Antrobus, and some 
bills een ouse plants, particularly Pime specta- 
» trom M 
nating we have ever seen before. en 
Cay was beautifully fine, the garden crowded 
Visitors of rank and fashion, and the arrange- 
cee for refreshments, under the direction of the 
sors to Mr. Gunter, everything that could be 
|) With: 
Ment: 
Tuit which took place last Saturday in the Garden of 
rs. Lawrence's garden, Were superior to 
desired. Medals to the amount of 250 were awarded, | such schools of industry, as well as learning, can be 
and well were they deserved by thesu cessful exhibitors. 
We have in some preceding articles endeavoured 
to show how the physical condition of our agricultural 
labourers might be improved by giving them useful 
and profitable employment. ‘To those who consider 
the subject in a higher and more philanthropic view, 
and desire to see the moral condition of the lower 
orders of society raised in the same proportion as the 
arts and sciences have raised that of their superiors, it 
will not be sufficient that the labourer have the means 
of procuring the common necessaries of life, if he have 
not likewise that’moral and intellectual improvement 
which greatly enhances the value of existence. This 
must be effected by education and instruction. 
The time is past when the fears and prejudices of 
narrow-minded men could counteract the desire of 
imparting’ useful knowledege to every class in society, 
from the highest to the lowest; and even if there 
were really any danger to society from a general dif- 
fusion of knowledge, it cannot now be avoided. The 
mass of the people are thirsting for knowledge, and it 
is in vain to attempt to lock up its sources, even if it 
were desirable to do so. 
But it is of great importance to the welfare of 
society, as well as to the happiness of the lower 
orders, that the knowledge imparted to them should 
be suited to their moral and physical condition ; that 
while they learn that which is really useful to them 
in their station, they should at the same time be taught 
those moral and religious principles by which they 
may steer their course through the storms and 
troubles of life. 
There are few words in our language which are 
oftener misapplied than the word education; and 
when we speak of the education of the lower orders, 
scarcely two men attach the same idea to the word: 
ence many of the objections and scruples which 
would vanish, if men understood each other perfectly. 
We have, no doubt, our own peculiar notions respect- 
ing the education of the agricultural labourer, and if 
our readers will have patience with us while we 
endeavour to explain them, they may probably find in 
the end that they do not differ widely from us, what- 
ever they may do at first sight. 
By education we mean fraining. The French call 
the breaking-in of a young horse his education ; the 
pointer is educated to show the sportsman where the 
game lurks by remaining immovable when his scent 
tells him that the game is before him. _When the 
horse is obedient, and his paces are formed, and when 
the dog is staunch and steady, they are said to be well 
trained or educated ; their nature and capacity allows 
of no considerable addition to this education. But 
with man it is very different: we often find amongst 
the lowest in the social scale, genius, which requires 
only to be developed to raise the individual to the 
highest rank amongst intellectual creatures, but which, 
for want of opportunity, is buried and lost to the 
world. Itis not, however, to bring forward these 
rare gems that we advocate general education ; it is to 
fit men of ordinary capacity for the duties which they 
are called upon to perform—to make the mechanic 
dexterous in his trade—to teach the labourer to do 
well whatever he may be called upon to do—to exer- 
cise his ingenuity in perfecting the operations he is 
engaged in, and to perform them with the least 
fatigue to himself. In those trades which require 
much kill and practice an apprenticeship is thought 
indispensable. In agriculture, one would imagine 
that everything was to be learned by instinct or imita- 
tion, and some well-meaning persons regret that boys, 
by going to school, are prevented from driving horses 
at plough, and thus in time learning to turn up the 
soil; as if the true principles of ploughing might not 
be learnt at school as well as forming crooked letters 
ona copy-book 5 or that a boy, become observant and 
intelligent by what he has learned, would not more 
readily becomea good ploughman than the clodhopper. 
Vé are almost ashamed to have dwelt so long on 
Iso self-evident a subject, but we would not be misun- 
| erstood ; we do not want labourers to be philoso- 
! phers nor mathematicians, much less controversialists 
in politics or religion ; but we would teach them what 
is useful, what will enable them to earn an inde- 
pendent livelihood, and, perhaps, 0 raise themselves 
by honest industry, Into a higher class in society ; 
while at the same time we inculcated those sound 
principles of religion and morality, without which 
they can never expect to be happy within their own 
minds, or respected by their fellow-men. 
On this principle we would that the schools esta- 
plished in agricultural districts were conducted, and 
that while children are taught to r d and write, 
which, in our days, are essential preliminaries in al 
education, they should likewise be taught whatever 
may be useful to them, when they come to earn their 
bread by the labour of their hands. That this is not 
ticable, even in the most retired parts of the 
only prac 
countrys 43 
masters who should voluntarily open such schools, we 
will endeavour to prove by actual facts; at all events, 
1} 
but may even be made profitable to the ! 
maintained at a much smaller cost than our national 
schools are at present ; and, under proper regulations, 
be much more effective in training intelligent 
labourers and mechanics.— AZ. 
SANDAL-WOOD, THE -ALMUG OF SCRIPTURE. 
In a former communication (Mar. 4, p. 132), having 
given some account of the Sandal-wood and tree, I pro- 
mised on a future occasion to say something respect- 
ing its history, This is at all times a subject worthy of 
inquiry, not only on account of the interest felt respecting 
substances which we are in the habit of using, and seeing, 
or hearing talked about; but also because when a substance 
can be distinctly recognised, we may, by tracing it as an 
article of commerce, have it in our power to make our 
inferences respecting the course of commerce in ancient 
times, and also respecting the state of civilisation, both 
of the exporters and importers of articles of luxury. 
Sandal-wood, though a produce of the Malabar coast, 
became early known in different and distant parts of 
India, and is therefore mentioned by early Sanscrit authors 
under the name of Chunduna. The common Indian name 
is Chundun, which the Arabs converted into Sundal, 
from which we have Sandal-wood. In the time of the 
Arabs the different kinds of Sandal-wood were well 
known, and distinguished by the names of red, white, and 
yellow Sandal-wood, all of which are probably the produce 
of the Peninsula of India; that is, if we suppose the 
yellow and the white to be produced by the same tree— 
Santalum album, and the red by Pterocarpus santalinus 
and Adenanthera pavonina, 
Many substances, the produce of India, found their 
way, as is well known, to northern nations, at very early 
periods. Among these we may mention pepper, ginger, 
and spikenard. India was, in fact, the chief object of 
early commerce, being reached by caravans from the 
north, or its produce found its way by ships to the Per- 
sian gulf and the Red Sea. Hence we can account not 
only for the produce but some of the Indian names of the 
more remarkable substances reaching the Greeks. Among 
these Sandal-wood does not appear in ordinary authors. 
Actuarius mentions it apparently as if it was a well-known 
substance. Ata still earlier period, however, that is, at 
the time of the Periplus of Arrian, who is supposed by 
Dr. Vincent to have been a merchant of the second cen- 
tury who visited the coast of Malabar, we find Sandal- 
wood mentioned by the name of Xylon Saggalinon, or 
Sangalinon, easily corrupted, as Dr. Vincent says, from 
Sandalinon, as an import at Omana, in Gadrosia. Be- 
tween this and Barugaza, that is Baroach, there has always 
been constant intercourse. Naoora, Tundis, and Mu- 
zivis of the Periplus are supposed by Dr. Vincent to be 
the present Onoor, Borela, and Mangalore, the very 
places from which Sandal-wood is exported even in the pre- 
sent day, and from which it must have been carried north 
to Baroach and Omana.. Seeing that it was an article of 
commerce at this early period, the only way in which we 
can account for its not being more distinctly mentioned 
is, that it may have been confounded with another 
grant wood, also obtained from India—that is, the 
Agila, or Aloe-wood. One cannot help thinking, that, 
growing so near the coast, and being possessed of such 
remarkable fragrance, it must have attracted attention as 
early as any other product of India. If we consider also 
the deficiency of timber both in Arabia and Egypt, and 
this, combined with the active commerce which seems to 
have existed at all times in the Red Sea, there must 
always have been a demand for timber, which must have 
been supplied from a variety of sources 5 indeed, in the 
very same list of imports in which Sandal-wood is men- 
tioned, we find dokon, or squared timber. In the present 
day timber is exported from Bombay to the coast of 
Forskal states that Saj, Abnoos, and Shishum 
rent kinds of timber imported from India in his 
into Arabia. These are, Teak, Ebony, and Sissoo, 
ast of which is the wood of Dalbergia Sissoo. Teak, 
he also states, was taken to Egypt for making the keels of 
ships. ‘That timber may have been imported by the Red 
Sea in former times seems far from improbable ; indeed, 
in the sacred writings, we find that when Solomon held 
sway as far as the shores of the Red Sea, in conjunction 
with Hiram and the Phoenicians, ‘‘ King Solomon made a 
navy of ships in Eziongeber, which is beside Elath, on 
the shore of the Red Sea, in the land of Edom: and 
they came to Ophir.”’—1 Kings, ix. 26. ‘And the 
navy also of Hiram, that brought gold from Ophir, 
brought in from Ophir great plenty of Almug-trees and 
precious stones.’’—1 Kings, x. 11. In the parallel 
vassuge * of 2 Chronicles, 1x. 21, ‘ The king’s ships 
went to Tarshish with the servants of Hiram: every 
three years once came the ships of Tarshish, bringing 
gold and silver, ivory, and apes and peacocks.’”’ If with 
these passages we compare 1 Kings, xxii. 48, and 
2 Chron. xx. 35, 36, it is evident that the voyage to 
Oplir was commenced at the head of the Red Sea, and 
that the ships went to Tarshish, as well as to Ophir, in 
this v e fence it is evident that there must have 
shish distinct from the Atlantic Tartessus, and 
it must be sought for, as well as ‘* Ophir, on either the 
African or Asiatic shores or islands of the Indian Ocean.” 
rich and distant countries, it may be allowed to infer that, 
as a great variety of indubitable Indian products were 
known to the ancients vood, spikenard, cinna- 
mon, pepper, and others; so it is evident that e pust 
with India at very early times; and 
to it, therefore, we should look for the cargo of precious 
1 
i 
| have been a commerce 
