478 
THE 
GARDENERS 
CHRONICLE. 
[Jory 15, 
bages and Swedes first sown will be worth 5/. per 
acre, and the Beet as much. The Turnips, after the 
Tares, we will set only at 5/. the three acres. We 
shali thus have an average produce of 70/., besides 
all the manure which is made from its consumption, 
and which is more than the land requires for the 
subsequent crops. The rent and taxes were 251, 
which leaves 45/. for labour. We have set down 
nothing for the occupier’s profit, because we sup- 
pose that the convenience and saving in the feed- 
ing of his horses, the milk and butter, pigs, poultry, 
eggs, &e., which he has at a much lower price than 
he could purchase them, will amply repay him. In 
the averages, we have made ample allowances for 
risk from failures, for our experience holds us out 
in warranting the average produce to be fully what 
we have stated for any number of years. In some 
years it might be nearly doubled, but from the variety 
of produce, a general failure or extraordinary success 
in all the crops is not to be expected. All the work, 
as far as is practicable, should be done by the task, 
except the taking off the crops and carting the 
manure.—M. 
We perceive by the advertisements that another of 
Mr. Skinner’s importations from Guatemala is about 
to be brought to the hammer. Among the plants, 
is the rare Sobralia macrantha, of which a very large 
specimen, in its native soil, is mentioned ; and the 
very curious genus, Evelyna, of which one specimen 
flowered some years since at Kew, but which has 
never since been seen in flower in Europe. At. the 
same time some very interesting New Zealand 
living plants will be sold. Of the latter, the most 
remarkable are—1, a new species of ‘Araucaria, 
which, with the habit of the South American 
species, has, mirabile dictu, quite another sort of 
cone; 2,a noble specimen of a Fern, called Acros- 
tichum grande ; 3, some very curious species of 
Clematis, Jasmine, and Rubus, entirely new, and. 
possibly hardy ; 4, anew Dacrydium ; 5, the hitherto 
unknown Dacrydium Mai, a tree about whose hardi- 
ness there is little doubt ; and, finally, a new species 
of Orchidacex, of the curious genus Earina, which is 
not in Europe elsewhere, and is so fragrant, that it 
was originally discovered in consequence of a passer- 
by being attracted by its sweet smell to the tree on 
which it grew ; it is the Harina suaveolens of Profes- 
sor Lindley. In the same collection are some most 
curious New Holland Dendrobia. We regard the 
last as one of the most curious collections of plants 
lately imported. 
PROCESS OF MAKING CHARCOAL. 
Wuonre iron cylinders are not employed for the pur- 
pose, charcoal is usually made by setting fire to a pile of 
wood, so covered tiat the free access of air is prevented ; 
for if this were admitted freely, the charcoal of the wood 
would be driven off in the state of carbonic acid, and 
only some ashes would remain. 
The wood should be cut in lengths of two or three feet, 
and so as it can be packed pretty closely together. The 
pile may be either placed on the level ground or in a pit ; 
but in the latter case three or four openings should be cut 
in the sides, from the bottom of the pit outwards, in order 
to admit a little draught for the ignition of the wood in 
the first instance. in the centre of the area several long 
pieces of wood must be fixed so as to leave an opening 
for introducing the kindling ; or an opening may be formed 
by pieces 12 or 15 inches in length, two of which are laid 
horizontally, six inches apart; two others are then laid at 
the same distance from each other across the two first, 
and so on; thus forming an opening six inches square 
from the bottom to the summit of the pile. Round this 
the billets or faggots are closely packed in a nearly upright 
position. When completed, the pile should be of a 
rounded conical form. The wood may, however, be dis- 
posed in the form of a ridge, several openings being left 
for ignition, When the pile is completed it must be 
covered with turf, which may be farther closed by earth 
or sand, as is found necessary during the process. ‘Where 
turf cannot be easily procured, old mats or any rubbish 
that will prevent the earth from mixing with the wood, 
will afford a tolerably good substitute. When allis covered 
except the opening at top, and some holes for air near 
the bottom, fire is introduced down the central opening. 
As soon as the pile is fairly ignited, the top must be well 
closed, and the smoke, but not flame, encouraged to issue 
as equally as possible from every other portion of the 
surface, by making holes with a pointed stick where 
smoke does not appear. Some portion of the wood must 
be consumed before sufficient heat can be obtained to 
expel the water composing, as regards quantity, the prin- 
cipal portion of the sap. After the wood becomes 
thoroughly heated to 212°, the water is given off in the 
form of steam, and the whole mass takes fire readily 
throughout. Great care is then necessary to prevent flame 
bursting out ; and as the heat increases the openings in 
the covering must be reduced, and finally closed when the 
charring is found to be complete. |i 
Tn a late Number of the Gardeners’ Chronicle a Cor- 
respondent inquired how charcoal could most readily be 
prepared in a state of powder. So many useful hints are 
derived from the suggesti of your correspond that 
the least return which can be made is to impart any sug- 
gestion which may have occurred to oneself, likely to 
be of use to other readers. For | the purpose | of mixing 
with potting-earth for striking cuttings or growing seeds, 
&c., charcoal may be readily prepared from saw-dust. A 
fire of dry sticks, &c. being lighted on the ground, upon 
a circular space, when it is well alight begin to heap on 
saw-dust with a shovel, allowing pleaty of air at first for 
a few hours, till the fire has got well hold, then cover the 
whole over with saw-dust, and patit down with the shovel, 
leaving three or four stout sticks projecting to the outside, 
which can be raised now and then to admit a little air. 
When such a heap is once well alight, it may be kept so 
for months, or indeed, for any length of time, taking care 
always to have a load or two of saw-dust at hand, which 
is to be thrown on as the fire breaks out at any spot : the 
heap should be sheltered from strong winds, and never 
allowed to burn out in the open air. A part of the char- 
coal thus made may be taken away every month or so 
‘rom one side of the heap, leaving the rest to keep the 
fire burning. Any one within reach of a saw-mill can 
get saw-dust for the trouble of carting it, and may thas 
make a useful manure of it.—Carbon. Nearly all the 
charcoal is prepared in France by a process which is 
known by the name of process of carbonization in heaps 
(meules), The wood is arranged in conical heaps of 
variable size, which are covered over with a thick layer of 
earth and of coal-ash ; the heap is kindled from the centre, 
where a cavity has been kept open for that purpose, and 
which descends to the base. In this cavity burning char- 
coal is placed and some small pieces of wood, and the air 
isfadmitted by holes formed at the base and over the 
whole circumference of the heap. After some hours, 
during which the central cavity or chimney is allowed to 
remain open in order to determine a more active combus- 
tion, the superior orifice is shut, and the carbonization is 
directed from above downwards, by piercing holes in the 
covering nearer and nearer to the base of the heap, as the 
operation advances.—Chemical Gazette. 
WATERING OUT-DOOR PLANTS. 
‘As one of the objects of the Gardeners’ Chronicle is 
not merely to recommend sound practice in the details 
of gardening, but to inquire into the reasons of that 
practice, I beg to offer a few observations on watering 
out-door plants in dry weather, and to point out the most 
suitable time at which this operation should be per- 
formed. In this neighbourhood I find the practice varies ; 
the watering sometimes takes place in the morning, 
sometimes in the evening,—the main design being to give 
water, although evidently a matter of indifference when it 
is applied. In other parts of the country it may be 
different; but as the Chronicle reaches all parts, I would 
beg to recommend through its medium the morning as 
the most proper time in generaljfor watering out-door 
plants. ‘Two acknowledged agents in vigorous growth 
are heat and moisture; plants out of doors must take the 
heat as they find it, and as we cannot increase, our object 
should be not to diminish it: moisture is under our con- 
trol, but if we exercise that control, and water our plants 
in the evening during dry weather, we do so at the expense 
of a great portion of the heat we desire to preserve. Two 
influences are at that time brought into operation in 
cooling down the plants, and retarding their growth, 
which we thus vainly endeavour to urge forward by 
moisture : these are evaporation and radiation. Evapor- 
ation is the more rapid in proportion to the dryness of the 
air; and hence it is most energetic, when the necessity 
for watering is most urgent: but evaporation cannot take 
place without producing cold, and that cold is propor- 
tionate to the rapidity of the process. Chemistry points 
out the reason of this, vapour having a greater capacity 
for heat than water, the heat sensible in the water becomes 
latent{in its vapour, and the sensible temperature falls 3 
additional heat to keep up ‘the temperature not being 
quickly enough supplied by the surrounding media, Let 
us look at the effect of this evening’s supply of water to 
plants: the air is dry, evaporation goes on briskly ; the 
temperature sinks, the plants are chilled, there are no 
sun’s rays to communicate fresh warmth, and their growth 
is sometimes even more unsatisfactory than that of such 
plants as are growing in the apparently arid soil, which 
have been allowed to take their chance. The other source 
of diminished temperature I noticed was radiation : every 
warm body tends continually to throw off its heat to all 
others of lower temperature, near or remote : but radiation 
in meteorology is more particularly confined to “the 
radiation of heat from the surface of the earth and objects 
on it into a clear sky.’”’ All objects do not radiate heat 
with equal rapidity: rough surfaces do it more readily 
than smooth, and dark surfaces than those of a lighter 
shade of colour. Apply the latter remark to the process 
of evening watering : almost all soils are darkened in their 
colour by moisture, and hence soil by this practice is 
reduced to the best possible condition for getting cooled 
down during the night. It is thus that the combined 
influence of evaporation and radiation, by evening watering, 
exerts itself in thwarting the desire of such as heedlessly 
practise it. The best time for watering exposed plants I 
consider to be about or soon after sunrise. Evaporation, 
no doubt, will then also go on freely, but the atmosphere 
is beginning to get warmer, and the sun’s rays to exert 
their counteracting influence. The darkened surface— 
that very condition which made the soil throw off its heat 
more readily during the night—causes it to imbibe the 
heat of the sun’s rays by day with increased facility, so 
that you thus have the greatest amount of the fostering 
agencies of heat and moisture for the growth of plants, 
When evening again comes round, the surface moisture 
has {been dried up, and its colour again rendered of a 
lighter shade: there is_ quently little diminution o/ 
temperature beyond surrounding objects, either from 
evaporation or radiation of heat.—J. L. Newburgh. 
ON VEGETABLE MANURES. 
(Continued from page 272.) 
3. Cranberries (Vaccinium owycoccos).—In moun- 
tainous and woody countries tle herbage of Cranberries 
is often used as litter. It contains much powerful 
manuring mineral substances, and probably an equal 
amount of nitrogen, so that it deserves every attention. 
It is, however, necessary that the manure thus obtained 
should be well rotted in the stable or on the dunghill; 
for it decays with difficulty in the fields, its texture being 
very woody, and its tannin and wax of considerable amount. 
100,000 parts of the green air-dried herbage contain of 
mineral substances :— 
75 parts of silica 
957 » lime 
178 » magnesia 
1288 » potash 
87 x, soda 
10 », alumina 
14 » oxide of iron 
958 » oxide of manganese 
149 » Sulphuric acid 
186 »» phosphoric acid , 
20 » chlorine 
3,319 parts of mineral substances. 
It contains 4. per cent. tannin, and 3 per cent. wax. 
It is to be supposed that its greater amount of lime, 
potash, sulphuric and phosphoric acid, will render it a 
better|manure than Heath, even if its amount of nitrogen. 
were less. Previous to using it as litter, it should be 
packed in large heaps, by which it will be heated and 
rendered softer, while its great amount of tannin will be 
decomposed. 
4. Bilberry-Leaves (Vaccinium myrtillus).—This herb- 
age is also used as litter in mountainous forest countries: 
Having a very woody texture and much tannin and wax; 
it should be treated like the herbage of Cranberries, and 
well rotted, either under the cattle or on the dunghill. 
100,000 parts of the green gathered air-dried herbag® 
contain of mineral substances :-— 
169 parts of silica 
1,036 ,, lime 
2 
24 4, magnesia 
P 324 4, potash 
188 ,, soda 
36 4, alumina and oxide of iron 
207 4, oxide of manganese 
131 ,, sulphuric acid 
179 5, phosphoric acid 
34 4, chlorine 
2,528 parts of mineral substances. ial 
The amount of nitrogen the Bilberry leaves contain 18 
not ascertained ; it is, however, probable that it contains 
more than Cranberries, and being also richer in lime, mag 
nesia,! potash, soda, and chlorine, it deserves to be use 
in preference where it can be obtained. There are 20 
experiments on this point, but analogy is a pretty sure 
ide, : 
5. Ferns. (Polypodium Phegopteris, Osmunda regalis, 
Pteris aquilina, Aspidium Filix mas., and Aspidium Bilix 
fozmina.) 
Ferns form a most desirable litter, not merely because of 
their containing powerful manuring matter, but on ace 
count of their nitrogen. In mountainous and forest 
countries they are always carefully collected, more espe 
cially because they afford a very soft litter for cattle. 
They are generally cut green, and thén dried and used 28 
litter during winter. Mixed with dung, they decompos® 
very fast. I have subjected the common Brakes (Pteris 
aquilina,) which is much used, to chemical analysis. 
100,000 parts of the fresh-gathered, air-dried herbage 
contain of mineral substances: — 
1,040 parts of silica 
433 ime 
3: yy a lim 
152 ,, magnesia 
1,050 ,, potash 
370 ,, + soda 
150 ,, oxide of iron 
36 ,, oxide of manganese 
95  ,, sulphuric acid 
60 ,, phosphoric acid 
258 ,, chlorine 
3,696 parts of mineral substances. if 
Common Brakes must be a very superior mE j 
only on account of their abundance of potash, eke by 
chlorine; but they are rendered still more valua' ¢ the 
their richness in nitrogen, for I find that 1001bs. 9 
dry herbage contain 16-100ths of a poun 
and consequently 3,0001bs, —45lbs. Its roots pen otasD» 
5 to 6 feet into the ground, and finding there more alt 
soda, and chlorine than on the surface, it #8 > plesome 
plant to extirpate. It is one of the most trou peing 
weeds, and every forester will approve of its 
gathered and destroyed. 
(Lo be ce 
AMATEUR’S GARDEN. 
Tun Calceolarias, especially the fine 
are a family of plants which are ver, 
XVI. | ae 
