492 



A^A TURE 



[September i 2. 1901 



too, at first sight might appear to be of little practical import- 

 ance. This criticism had frequently been applied to many of the 

 papers read before the Iron and Steel Institute. It must be 

 remembered, however, that this had been from time immemorial 

 the favourite objection to the work of pioneers of thought. 



The 30,000 pages published by the Iron and Steel Institute 

 since its inauguration in 1S71 afforded fruitful examples of the 

 subsequent value of scientific researches, which, when first pre- 

 sented, were received with coolness and suspicion. Numerous 

 examples might be cited. For instance, the microscopic method 

 of investigating the structure of steel, created by Sorby, Martens, 

 Osmond, Howe and Stead, had become an indispensable 

 auxiliary to chemical analysis and physical tests in steelworks. 

 The abstruse memoirs on the heat treatment of steel, and on 

 pyrometry, had led to important practical applications, and the 

 phase rule enunciated by the American professor, Gibbs, and 

 applied by Sir William Roberts-Austen, Baron Jiiptner, Le 

 Chatelier and Stansfield would no doubt eventually prove of 

 extreme value in elucidating some of the more intricate problems 

 .confronting the metallurgist. 



The first paper was read by Mr. Walter Dixon. It contained 

 a concise account of the iron and steel industries of the west of 

 Scotland, drawn up by a committee of the local metallurgical 

 society, pig iron being dealt with by Mr. Henry Bumby, wrought 

 iron by Mr. W. Wylie, and steel by Mr. H. Archibald. 



The second paper was also the report of a committee, pre- 

 sented by Mr. Bennett H. Brough, the secretary. In view of 

 the fact that with the development of metallography the nomen- 

 clature was becoming more and more involved, the Iron and 

 Steel Institute appointed a committee to consider the matter 

 and to ascertain whether it would be possible to take steps to 

 ■make the terminology less complicated and more precise. A 

 glossary was submitted, containing the more important terms 

 used by authors of memoirs dealing with metallography, in the 

 hope of obtaining criticisms and suggestions in order that the 

 committee might have before them data upon which to base 

 their judgment. In each case the equivalents in French and 

 German were added. 



Mr. A. Wahlberg (Stockholm), then read a paper on varia- 

 tions of carbon and phosphorus in steel ingots. The object of 

 his research was to establish the limits of variation of carbon and 

 phosphorus in steel which has been cast into 10-inch ingots and 

 then rolled into 4-inch billets, and to ascertain to what extent 

 chemical analyses of identical samples vary in their results as 

 regard the percentage of carbon and of phosphorus when made 

 by different chemists. The material tested was procured from 

 four works and was analysed in four laboratories. The varia- 

 tion in chemical composition in different portions of the billet 

 and the divergent results obtained by different analysts were 

 well shown in a number of tables. In the discussion which fol- 

 lowed the reading of the paper, the need for standard methods 

 of analysis was urged. 



The meeting then adjourned until September 4, when Mr. 

 X. H. Ridsdale read a lengthy paper of great practical interest 

 on the correct treatment of steel. After a full discussion of 

 this paper, Mr. J. E. Stead read an abstract of two papers. In 

 the first, on copper and iron alloys, he reviewed the contra- 

 dictory evidence in metallurgical text-books, and gave the results 

 of his recent work. Copper and iron, he showed, alloyed most 

 readily by direct fusion in all proportions. Such alloys might 

 be classed in three main sections : (a) with traces to 273 per 

 cent, of iron and 97-2 per cent, of copper, (b) with S'O per cent, 

 of copper and 91 5 per cent, of iron, and (i) alloys intermediate 

 between the two. The alloys of the first two sections are prac- 

 tically homogeneous, class a con.sisting of copper with iron in 

 solid solution and class b consisting of iron with copper in solu- 

 tion. The alloys of the third class contain saturated solid solu- 

 tions, copper in iron and iron in copper, separate from each 

 other but in micro-juxtaposition. In solidifying the portion first 

 to fall out of solution was the iron containing copper in solid 

 solution. The conflicling character of evidence previously pub- 

 lished was probably due to the fact that some of the investigators 

 in the past had not taken the precaution to use iron free from 

 carbon. The effect of caibon is marked. On heating the alloys 

 containing more than 7 '5 per cent, of copper to whiteness with 

 charcoal, copper containing about 10 per cent, uf iron is thrown 

 out of solution and falls to the bottom, leaving a layer of carbur- 

 ised iron on the surface containing about 7'5 per cent, of copper. 

 In the next paper, Mr. J. E. Stead and Mr. F. H. Wigham 

 described experiments on a series of steels with and without 



NO. 1663, VOL. 64] 



copper prepared by dividing the finished steel in each series 

 when in a fluid stale into two parts, to one of which copper was 

 added in amounts varying betsveen 0'46 and 20 per cent. 

 Elaborate tests showed that copper in such large quantities does 

 not improve the quality of the wire, but generally has a deterior- 

 ating influence, particularly in the presence of high carbon. The 

 only good property exhibited by cupreous steel wire is that it 

 resists corrosion. 



Mr. G. Watson Gray then read a paper recording the occur- 

 rence of calcium in a ferro-silicon. He gave analyses of ferro- 

 silicons containing o'79to I4'40 percent, of calcium, and described 

 a new method for the analysis of ferro-silicon. 



A lengthy paper on the profitable utiHsation of power from 

 blast-furnace gases was read by Mr. B. H. Thwaite. One of 

 the results following the use of blast-furnace gas for the direct 

 production of power in internal combustion engines has been 

 marked progress in the mechanical perfection of power capaci- 

 ties and in the thermodynamic efficiency of this engine. A 

 new scheme for obtaining all the power possible from the blast 

 furnace, devised by the author, includes the recovery of the sen- 

 sible heat that is otherwise lost in cooling the blast-furnace 

 gases, in heating the air to convert coal into gas in producers, 

 and in supporting the combustion of the gases thus produced in 

 hot-blast stoves. The various outlets for electric power that' 

 could be generated by the new system are described. The pro- 

 duction of silicon and calcium carbides, of chromium, nickel and 

 aluminium are instanced as being exceptionally suitable as asso- 

 ciated industries for ironworks. 



Prof. W. N. Hartley and Mr. H. Ramage next gave the re- 

 sults of an investigation of the spectra of flames at different 

 periods during the basic Bessemer blow. The conclusion arrived 

 at was that the phenomena of the basic Bessemer blow differ 

 considerably from those of the acid process, in the following 

 respects : — 



First, a flame is visible from the commencement of blowing, 

 or as soon as the cloud of lime dust has dispersed. We conclude 

 that the immediate production of this flame is caused by car- 

 bonaceous matter in the lining of the vessel, that its luminosity 

 is due partly to the volatilisation of the alkalis, and to the incan- 

 descence of lime dust carried out by the blast. 



.Secondly, volatilisation of metal occurs largely at an early 

 period in the blow, and is due to the difference in composition 

 of the metal blown, chiefly to the smaller quantity of silicon. 

 There is practically no distinct period when siliceous slags are 

 formed in the *' basic " process, and metals are volatilised readily 

 in the reducing atmosphere, rich in carbon monoxide. 



Thirdly, a very large amount of fume is formed towards the 

 close of the second period. This arises from the oxidation of 

 metal and of phosphorus in the iron phosphide being productive 

 of a high temperature, but little or no carbon remainmg. The 

 flame is comparatively short, and the metallic vapours carried 

 up are burnt by the blast. 



Fourthly, the " over-blow " is characterised by a very power- 

 ful illumination from what appears to be a brilliant yellow 

 flame ; a dense fume is produced at this time composed of 

 oxidised metallic vapours, chiefly iron. These particles are 

 undoubtedly of very minute dimensions, as is proved by the fact 

 that they scatter the light which falls on them, and the cloud 

 casts a brown shadow, and, on a still day, ascends to a great 

 height. In a given flame the brilliancy of the line spectrum of 

 potassium is increased by diminishing the quantity of metallic 

 vapour in the flame : this does not appear to depend altogether 

 on the weakening of the continuous spectrum which accompanies 

 the line spectrum of potassium ; some experiments made with 

 various salts of potassium show that it is probably due, in part 

 at least, to the increased freedom of motion permitted to the 

 molecules of the metal. 



Mr. A. Wahlberg (Stockholm) submitted the second portion 

 of his elaborate memoir on Brinell's method of determining 

 hardness and other properties of iron and steel. The first por- 

 tion was read at the Rlay meeting, and the two together constitute 

 a monograph of about one hundred pages. The second portion 

 dealt more particularly with the influence of different methods 

 of annealing and hardening on the tensile properties of iron and 

 steel determined by means of tensile tests, and with researches 

 undertaken for the purpose of ascertaining ihe influence of 

 chemical composition and various modes of treatment on the 

 resistance to impact in iron and steel at ordinary and low tem- 

 peratures. 



Mr. Arthur Wirgham submitted a very suggestive paper on 



