NOVEMBER 5, 1903] 
NELRORE.. 
17 
metaphysics, it was now the case with psychology. He 
spoke of the importance of this process as far as the increase 
of knowledge is concerned, and also as regards the im- 
provement of each of the sciences and their relations one 
to another. He then traced the experimental and specu- 
lative character of psychology. Experimental psychology, 
the president urged, should confine itself solely to the scien- 
tific observation of facts. Certain facts, called psychical 
(Wallace, Crookes, Zéllner, Thury, &c.), are incapable of 
any explanation, at least by known physical forces, and it 
is the duty of science to examine these if psychology is 
really to assume an experimental character. The facts re- 
ferred to belong, it may be, to psychophysics. When 
psychology has really become an experimental science such 
phenomena will be known not only by their external mani- 
festations, but also by their hidden source, and the know- 
ledge of them will become an organic whole. 
Mr. E. Fischer (Bern) read a paper on the biological 
species of parasitic fungi and of the origin of new forms 
in the vegetable kingdom. The nature and properties of 
biological species were studied particularly in the 
Uredinées, and more recently in Claviceps purpurea. 
Philogenetically, at present, a common origin is attributed 
to the biological forms of a species; consequently, it 
seems plausible that the original form (Stammform) inhabits 
all the hosts on which its descendants now live, and that 
some at least among its descendants may be specialised on 
one or other of the nourishing plants. Reciprocally, the 
passage of one parasite to new hosts has been observed 
directly. Among the causes of the origin of biological 
species, following Klebalen, is admitted in the first line 
the direct adaptation (Anpassung und Angewohnung) of 
these nourishing plants. It was also said that the explan- 
ation given is not applicable at present to the origin of 
species morphologically different; the morphological 
characters of species are, at most, partially attributable to 
the direct action of the nourishing plants (Naherpflanzen), 
and for the most part they must be related to the characters 
of the organisation in the sense used by Nageli. 
M. H. Dufour (Lausanne) took for the subject of his 
paper to the conference ten years’ observations of solar 
radiation in Switzerland, and its diminution in 1903. The 
Swiss plateau on the north of the Alps (Lausanne, Bern, 
Zurich, Bale) has a number of hours of sunshine varying 
between 1900 at Lausanne and 1200 at Bale, that is to say, 
47-44 per cent. of the greatest insolation possible. The 
maximum occurs in August (64-57 per cent.), the minimum 
in December or January (27-29 per cent.); in March and 
May the insolation is relatively feeble. To the south of the 
Alps (Lugano, Locarno) 2300 hours of sunshine were re- 
corded, 59 per cent. of the possible maximum; two minima 
occur in May and November, and two maxima in July and 
February, with 60 per cent. At Alpine observatories the 
character of the results changes. At Davos (1500 m.) the 
insolation is not so strong in winter as in summer, when 
1800 hours of sunshine are recorded; two minima are 
observed—in January and May—and two maxima (February 
and September—October). At the summit of Sdntis 
(2500 m.) the insolation of winter, 45 per cent., exceeds 
markedly that of summer, 40 per cent. The mean amount 
is 42 per cent; the minimum occurs in May and June, and 
the maximum in November. For the intensity of the solar 
radiation, measured by Biihrer (Clarens-Montreux) and 
Dufour (Lausanne), the result has been obtained of 8-5 
calories (kilogram-degrees) per minute and per square metre 
of normal black surface on the sun between 11 and 1 o’clock. 
The maximum occurs in April-May, the minimum in 
January. At an altitude of 400-500 m. it rarely exceeds 
10 calories, at 2000 m. (Rochers de Naye) 13 calories. In 
1903 the values of the actinometric measures are notably 
feebler than in previous years, probably because of an 
abnormal opacity of the atmosphere, which may be 
attributed to the diffusion in the air of dust arising from 
the violent volcanic eruptions of the Lesser Antilles, which 
would facilitate the condensation of aqueous vapour in the 
form of fog—very attenuated and invisible, but yet 
absorbent. 
M. P. Weiss (Ziirich) exhibited by means of a series of 
interesting experiments the new magnetic properties of 
pyrrhotine, that is to say, the directions in which crystals 
of this mineral are sensitive to the influence of magnets. 
M. A. Lang (Ziirich), in speaking of the biological 
NO. 1775, VOL. 69| 
significance of elegance in certain marine organisms, said 
that the scientific study of animal forms did not prevent an 
understanding of the esthetic manifestations of nature 
which could be applied in decorative art, for instance. He 
showed that all those characters which give beauty and 
charm to the marine fauna—such as form and symmetry, 
phosphorescence, and transparency—enable these animal 
forms to respond to their environment, and thus to facilitate 
and assure their continued existence. 
The number and importance of the communications which 
dealt with the canton of Ticino were very remarkable. 
M. C. Keller (Ztirich), with his descent of the animal world 
of the Ticino cantons showed that the fauna principally 
studied by Stabile and Pavesi contains very different 
elements ; the lacustrine is a fauna relicta (Pavesi), and the 
terrestrial contains arctico-alpine elements. But the most 
remarkable characteristics are those of the sylvatic fauna 
of central Europe, and also the great number of types of 
the Mediterranean subregion. He also made several 
interesting comparisons with the fauna of other Swiss 
regions, and showed several new researches for Ticino which 
have been found by him. At the same meeting M. F. 
Merz (Bellinzona) spoke on the forestry of the Ticino 
canton, and similar questions were referred to in various 
sections by MM. Freuler, Bettelini, Calloni, and Pometta. 
The most largely attended sectional meetings were those 
concerned with physics and chemistry, and the most im- 
portant papers read at these meetings were those of 
MM. Haller (Paris), Schr (Strassburg), de la Rive (Geneva), 
Nolting (Milhouse), Forel (Morges), Bertoni (Livorno), 
Tomasina, Soret (Geneva), Schiihmacher-Kopp (Lucerne), 
Riggenbach (Bale), Hagenbach (Bonn), and others. 
In the botanical section the most interesting communi- 
cations were those of MM. Rikli (Ziirich), C. Schroter 
(Zurich), A. Usteri, and Wilezeck (Lausanne); in the zoo- 
logical section a magnificent monograph was presented by 
the honorary member, M. P. Pavesi (Pavia), on the fauna 
of the valley of Aosta, and papers were read by MM. Lang, 
Keller, Studer (Bern), Volz (Bern), and Pictet (Geneva) ; 
the section of geology and mineralogy mustered but a very 
small attendance, for the Swiss geologists were almost all 
at the international congress at Vienna. 
The excursions and the receptions, which took place in 
exceptionally fine weather, the cordial welcome and generous 
hospitality of the residents, all contributed to the splendid 
success of this year’s gathering. R. Nato. 
THE NATURE-STUDY EXHIBITION. 
HROUGH the kindness of the Civil Service Com- 
missioners and His Majesty’s Office of Works a 
Nature-Study Exhibition was held at Burlington Gardens 
from October 30 to November 3. In the absence of Lord 
Avebury, chairman of the committee, Sir Henry Howarth 
presided, and Sir John Cockburn declared the exhibition 
open. : 
It may at once be said that the object of the undertaking 
was to put into effect, forthwith, the lessons learned from 
the exhibition held last year at the Royal Botanic Gardens. 
There, through the energy of Mr. J. C. Medd, for the first 
time were brought together all the various methods and 
matters which have been taken or mistaken for nature- 
study. It soon became obvious that much excellent science 
teaching on the one hand was masquerading under the title, 
and on the other that desultory collecting without rhyme or 
reason was a second claimant for it. 
At the suggestion of Mr. Wilfred Mark Webb, honorary 
secretary of the Middlesex Field Club and Nature-Study 
Society, delegates from it and from the Selborne Society met 
to appoint a committee to organise an exhibition on definite 
lines. The area from which exhibits were invited was also 
restricted to a dozen or so counties within easy reach of 
London. Evidence of work was asked for which dealt with 
such observational teaching as should form part of the 
education of all. This, while serving as an_ excellent 
preparation for science, is scientific only as regards method 
and accuracy of treatment. 
1 The communications to the various meetings of which mention is made 
will appear in the Actes and the Comptes rendus of the Association, most 
of them 7” extenso. Thanks are due to MM. Pioda, Fischer, Keller and 
Dufour for information very readily given. 
